Alka A. Vyas

High-affinity anti-ganglioside IgG antibodies raised in complex ganglioside knockout mice: reexamination of GD1a immunolocalization.

Abstract : Gangliosides, sialic acid‐bearing glycosphingolipids, are highly enriched in the vertebrate nervous system. Anti‐ganglioside antibodies are associated with various human neuropathies, although the pathogenicity of these antibodies remains unproven. Testing the pathogenic role of anti‐ganglioside antibodies will be facilitated by developing high‐affinity IgG‐class complement‐fixing monoclonal anti‐bodies against major brain gangliosides, a goal that has been difficult to achieve. In this study, mice lacking complex gangliosides were used as immune‐naive hosts to raise anti‐ganglioside antibodies. Wild‐type mice and knockout mice with a disrupted gene for GM2/GD2 synthase (UDP‐N‐acetyl‐D‐galactosamine : GM3/GD3 N‐acetyl‐D‐glactosaminyltransferase) were immunized with GD1a conjugated to keyhole limpet hemocyanin. The knockout mice produced a vigorous anti‐GD1a IgG response, whereas wildtype littermates failed to do so. Fusion of spleen cells from an immunized knockout mouse with myeloma cells yielded numerous IgG anti‐GD1a antibody‐producing colonies. Ganglioside binding studies revealed two specificity classes ; one colony representing each class was cloned and characterized. High‐affinity monoclonal antibody was produced by each hybridoma : an IgG1 that bound nearly exclusively to GD1a and an IgG2b that bound GD1a, GT1b, and GT1aα. Both antibodies readily readily detected gangliosides via ELISA, TLC immune overlay, immunohistochemistry, and immunocytochemistry. In contrast to prior reports using anti‐GD1a and anti‐GT1b IgM class monoclonal antibodies, the new antibodies bound avidly to granule neurons in brain tissue sections and cell cultures. Mice lacking complex gangliosides are improved hosts for raising high‐affinity, high‐titer anti‐ganglioside IgG antibodies for probing for the distribution and physiology of gangliosides and the pathophysiology of anti‐ganglioside antibodies.

Brain gangliosides: functional ligands for myelin stability and the control of nerve regeneration.

Gangliosides, sialylated glycosphingolipids which are the predominant glycans on vertebrate nerve cell surfaces, are emerging as components of membrane rafts, where they can mediate important physiological functions. Myelin associated glycoprotein (MAG), a minor constituent of myelin, is a sialic acid binding lectin with two established physiological functions: it is involved in myelin-axon stability and cytoarchitecture, and controls nerve regeneration. MAG is found selectively on the myelin membranes directly apposed to the axon surface, where it has been proposed to mediate myelin-axon interactions. Although the nerve cell surface ligands for MAG remain to be established, evidence supports a functional role for sialylated glycoconjugates. Here we review recent studies that reflect on the role of gangliosides, sialylated glycosphingolipids, as functional MAG ligands. MAG binds to gangliosides with the terminal sequence NeuAc alpha 3Gal beta 3GalNAc which is found on the major nerve gangliosides GD1a and GT1b. Gangliosides lacking that terminus (e.g., GM1 or GD1b), or having any biochemical modification of the terminal NeuAc residue fail to support MAG binding. Genetically engineered mice lacking the GalNAc transferase required for biosynthesis of the NeuAc alpha 3Gal beta 3GalNAc terminus have grossly impaired myelination and progressive neurodegeneration. Notably the MAG level in these animals is dysregulated. Furthermore, removal of NeuAc residues from nerve cells reverses MAG-mediated inhibition of neuritogenesis, and neurons from mice lacking the NeuAc alpha 3 Gal beta 3GalNAc terminus have an attenuated response to MAG. Cross-linking nerve cell surface gangliosides can mimic MAG-mediated inhibition of nerve regeneration. Taken together these observations implicate gangliosides as functional MAG ligands.

Gangliosides and Nogo Receptors Independently Mediate Myelin-associated Glycoprotein Inhibition of Neurite Outgrowth in Different Nerve Cells

In the injured nervous system, myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) on residual myelin binds to receptors on axons, inhibits axon outgrowth, and limits functional recovery. Conflicting reports identify gangliosides (GD1a and GT1b) and glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored Nogo receptors (NgRs) as exclusive axonal receptors for MAG. We used enzymes and pharmacological agents to distinguish the relative roles of gangliosides and NgRs in MAG-mediated inhibition of neurite outgrowth from three nerve cell types, dorsal root ganglion neurons (DRGNs), cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs), and hippocampal neurons. Primary rat neurons were cultured on control substrata and substrata adsorbed with full-length native MAG extracted from purified myelin. The receptors responsible for MAG inhibition of neurite outgrowth varied with nerve cell type. In DRGNs, most of the MAG inhibition was via NgRs, evidenced by reversal of inhibition by phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC), which cleaves glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchors, or by NEP1–40, a peptide inhibitor of NgR. A smaller percentage of MAG inhibition of DRGN outgrowth was via gangliosides, evidenced by partial reversal by addition of sialidase to cleave GD1a and GT1b or by P4, an inhibitor of ganglioside biosynthesis. Combining either PI-PLC and sialidase or NEP1–40 and P4 was additive. In contrast to DRGNs, in CGNs MAG inhibition was exclusively via gangliosides, whereas inhibition of hippocampal neuron outgrowth was mostly reversed by sialidase or P4 and only modestly reversed by PI-PLC or NEP1–40 in a non-additive fashion. A soluble proteolytic fragment of native MAG, dMAG, also inhibited neurite outgrowth. In DRGNs, dMAG inhibition was exclusively NgR-dependent, whereas in CGNs it was exclusively ganglioside-dependent. An inhibitor of Rho kinase reversed MAG-mediated inhibition in all nerve cells, whereas a peptide inhibitor of the transducer p75NTR had cell-specific effects quantitatively similar to NgR blockers. Our data indicate that MAG inhibits axon outgrowth via two independent receptors, gangliosides and NgRs.

Potent Glycan Inhibitors of Myelin-associated Glycoprotein Enhance Axon Outgrowth in Vitro*

Myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG, Siglec-4) is one of several endogenous axon regeneration inhibitors that limit recovery from central nervous system injury and disease. Molecules that block such inhibitors may enhance axon regeneration and functional recovery. MAG, a member of the Siglec family of sialic acid-binding lectins, binds to sialoglycoconjugates on axons and particularly to gangliosides GD1a and GT1b, which may mediate some of the inhibitory effects of MAG. In a prior study (Blixt, O., Collins, B. E., van den Nieuwenhof, I. M., Crocker, P. R., and Paulson, J. C. (2003) J. Biol. Chem. 278, 31007-31019), we identified potent monovalent sialoside inhibitors of MAG using a novel screening platform. In the current study, the most potent of these were tested for their ability to reverse MAG-mediated inhibition of axon outgrowth from rat cerebellar granule neurons in vitro. Monovalent sialoglycans enhanced axon regeneration in proportion to their MAG binding affinities. The most potent glycoside was disialyl T antigen (NeuAcα2–3Galβ1–3[NeuAcα2–6]GalNAc-R), followed by 3-sialyl T antigen (NeuAcα2–3Galβ1–3GalNAc-R), structures expressed on O-linked glycoproteins as well as on gangliosides. Prior studies indicated that blocking gangliosides reversed MAG inhibition (Vyas, A. A., Patel, H. V., Fromholt, S. E., Heffer-Lauc, M., Vyas, K. A., Dang, J., Schachner, M., and Schnaar, R. L. (2002) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 8412–8417). In the current study, blocking O-linked glycoprotein sialylation with benzyl-α-GalNAc had no effect. The ability to reverse MAG inhibition with monovalent glycosides encourages further exploration of glycans and glycan mimetics as blockers of MAG-mediated axon outgrowth inhibition.

Schwann cell phenotype is regulated by axon modality and central–peripheral location, and persists in vitro ☆

Myelinating Schwann cells express distinct sensory and motor phenotypes as defined by their differing patterns of growth factor production (Hoke et al., 2006). The heterogeneous growth factor requirements of sensory and motor neurons, however, suggest that Schwann cell phenotype might vary across a broad spectrum. To explore this possibility, we selectively denervated six discrete Schwann cell populations: dorsal root, cutaneous nerve, cutaneous unmyelinated axons, muscle nerve afferents, muscle nerve efferents, and ventral root. Real-time RT-PCR for 11 growth factors was performed on the 6 target Schwann cell populations 5, 15, and 30 days after their denervation, and on normal cutaneous nerve, muscle nerve, ventral root, and dorsal root to establish baseline expression levels. Within the denervated axon populations, IGF-1 and VEGF were expressed most prominently in cutaneous nerve, HGF, NGF, and BDNF in cutaneous nerve and dorsal root, GDNF in dorsal root and ventral root, PTN in the ventral root and muscle nerve efferents, and IGF-2 in both afferents and efferents within muscle nerve; expression of CNTF, FGF-2 and NT-3 was not modality or location specific. ELISA for NGF, BDNF, and GDNF confirmed that gene expression correlated with protein concentration. These findings demonstrate that growth factor expression by denervated Schwann cells is not only subject to further regulation within the previously-defined sensory and motor groups, but also varies along a central-peripheral axis. The traditional view of myelinating Schwann cells as a homogenous population is modified by the realization that complex regulation produces a wide variety of Schwann cell phenotypes. Additionally, we found that Schwann cell phenotype is maintained for 2 weeks in vitro, demonstrating that it may survive several cell divisions without instructive cues from either axons or basal lamina.

An in vitro model of adult mammalian nerve repair.

The role of pathway-derived growth factors in the support of peripheral axon regeneration remains elusive. Few appropriate knock-out mice are available, and gene silencing techniques are rarely 100% effective. To overcome these difficulties, we have developed an in vitro organotypic co-culture system that accurately models peripheral nerve repair in the adult mammal. Spinal cord sections from P4 mice that express YFP in their neurons are used to innervate segments of P4 peripheral nerve. This reconstructed ventral root is then transected and joined to a nerve graft. Growth of axons across the nerve repair and into the graft can be imaged repeatedly with fluorescence microscopy to define regeneration speed, and parent neurons can be labeled in retrograde fashion to identify contributing neurons. Nerve graft harvested from adult mice remains viable in culture by both morphologic and functional criteria. Motoneurons are supported with GDNF for the first week in culture, after which they survive axotomy, and are thus functionally adult. This platform can be modified by using motoneurons from any genetically modified mouse that can be bred to express XFP, by harvesting nerve graft from any source, or by treating the culture systemically with antibodies, growth factors, or pathway inhibitors. The regeneration environment is controlled to a degree not possible in vivo, and the use of experimental animals is reduced substantially. The flexibility and control offered by this technique should thus make it a useful tool for the study of regeneration biology.

Novel Roles for Osteopontin and Clusterin in Peripheral Motor and Sensory Axon Regeneration

Previous studies demonstrated that Schwann cells (SCs) express distinct motor and sensory phenotypes, which impact the ability of these pathways to selectively support regenerating neurons. In the present study, unbiased microarray analysis was used to examine differential gene expression in denervated motor and sensory pathways in rats. Several genes that were significantly upregulated in either denervated sensory or motor pathways were identified and two secreted factors were selected for further analysis: osteopontin (OPN) and clusterin (CLU) which were upregulated in denervated motor and sensory pathways, respectively. Sciatic nerve transection induced upregulation of OPN and CLU and expression of both returned to baseline levels with ensuing regeneration. In vitro analysis using exogenously applied OPN induced outgrowth of motor but not sensory neurons. CLU, however, induced outgrowth of sensory neurons, but not motor neurons. To assess the functional importance of OPN and CLU, peripheral nerve regeneration was examined in OPN and CLU−/− mice. When compared with OPN+/+ mice, motor neuron regeneration was reduced in OPN−/− mice. Impaired regeneration through OPN−/− peripheral nerves grafted into OPN+/+ mice indicated that loss of OPN in SCs was responsible for reduced motor regeneration. Sensory neuron regeneration was impaired in CLU−/− mice following sciatic nerve crush and impaired regeneration nerve fibers through CLU−/− nerve grafts transplanted into CLU+/+ mice indicated that reduced sensory regeneration is likely due to SC-derived CLU. Together, these studies suggest unique roles for SC-derived OPN and CLU in regeneration of peripheral motor and sensory axons.

Modification of Schwann cell gene expression by electroporation in vivo

Clinical outcomes of nerve grafting are often inferior to those of end-to-end nerve repair. This may be due, in part, to the routine use of cutaneous nerve to support motor axon regeneration. In previous work, we have demonstrated that Schwann cells express distinct sensory and motor phenotypes, and that these promote regeneration in a modality-specific fashion. Intra-operative modification of graft Schwann cell phenotype might therefore improve clinical outcomes. This paper demonstrates the feasibility of electroporating genes into intact nerve to modify Schwann cell gene expression. Initial trials established 70 V, 5 ms as optimum electroporation parameters. Intact, denervated, and reinnervated rat tibial nerves were electroporated with the YFP gene and evaluated serially by counting S-100 positive cells that expressed YFP. In intact nerve, a mean of 28% of Schwann cells expressed the gene at 3 days, falling to 20% at 7 days with little expression at later times. There were no significant differences among the three groups at each time period. Electronmicroscopic evaluation of treated, intact nerve revealed only occasional demyelination and axon degeneration. Intra-operative electroporation of nerve graft is thus a practical means of altering Schwann cell gene expression without the risks inherent in viral transfection.

A two-compartment organotypic model of mammalian peripheral nerve repair

BACKGROUNDnSchwann cells in the distal stump of transected nerve upregulate growth factors that support regeneration on a modality-specific basis. It is unclear, however, which of these preferentially support motor axon regeneration. Identification of these factors will require a model that can isolate growth factor effects to growing axons while reproducing the complex three-dimensional structure of peripheral nerve.nnnNEW METHODnA two-compartment PDMS base is topped by a collagen-coated membrane that supports a spinal cord cross-section above one compartment. Fluorescent motoneurons in this section reinnervate a segment of peripheral nerve that directs axons through a water-tight barrier to the second compartment, where nerve repair is performed.nnnRESULTSnMotoneurons remain healthy for several weeks. The axons they project through the water-tight barrier survive transection and cross a nerve repair in substantial numbers to reinnervate an additional nerve segment. Fluidic isolation of the two compartments was confirmed with a dye leakage test, and the physiologic integrity of the system was tested by retrograde labeling of only those motor neurons to which tracer was exposed and by limitation of toxin effects to a single compartment.nnnCOMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODSnNerve repair cannot be modeled in monolayer cell culture. Our previous organotypic model accurately modeled nerve repair, but did not allow individual control of motoneuron and growth cone environments.nnnCONCLUSIONSnThis model isolates treatment effects to growing axons while reproducing the complex three-dimensional structure of peripheral nerve. Additionally, it facilitates surgical manipulation of tissues and high-resolution imaging.

Adult motor axons preferentially reinnervate predegenerated muscle nerve

Preferential motor reinnervation (PMR) is the tendency for motor axons regenerating after repair of mixed nerve to reinnervate muscle nerve and/or muscle rather than cutaneous nerve or skin. PMR may occur in response to the peripheral nerve pathway alone in juvenile rats (Brushart, 1993; Redett et al., 2005), yet the ability to identify and respond to specific pathway markers is reportedly lost in adults (Uschold et al., 2007). The experiments reported here evaluate the relative roles of pathway and end organ in the genesis of PMR in adult rats. Fresh and 2-week predegenerated femoral nerve grafts were transferred in correct or reversed alignment to replace the femoral nerves of previously unoperated Lewis rats. After 8 weeks of regeneration the motoneurons projecting through the grafts to recipient femoral cutaneous and muscle branches and their adjacent end organs were identified by retrograde labeling. Motoneuron counts were subjected to Poisson regression analysis to determine the relative roles of pathway and end organ identity in generating PMR. Transfer of fresh grafts did not result in PMR, whereas substantial PMR was observed when predegenerated grafts were used. Similarly, the pathway through which motoneurons reached the muscle had a significant impact on PMR when grafts were predegenerated, but not when they were fresh. Comparison of the relative roles of pathway and end organ in generating PMR revealed that neither could be shown to be more important than the other. These experiments demonstrate unequivocally that adult muscle nerve and cutaneous nerve differ in qualities that can be detected by regenerating adult motoneurons and that can modify their subsequent behavior. They also reveal that two weeks of Wallerian degeneration modify the environment in the graft from one that provides no modality-specific cues for motor neurons to one that actively promotes PMR.