Allen E. Anderson

REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF MALE FLORIDA PANTHERS: COMPARATIVE STUDIES FROM FLORIDA, TEXAS, COLORADO, LATIN AMERICA, AND NORTH AMERICAN ZOOS

Testicular volume, semen traits, and pituitary-gonadal hormones were measured in populations of Felis concolor from Florida, Texas, Colorado, Latin America, and North American zoos. More Florida panthers ( F. concolor coryi ) were unilaterally cryptorchid (one testicle not descended into the scrotum) than other populations (43.8 versus 3.9%, respectively). Florida panthers also had lower testicular and semen volumes, poorer sperm progressive motility, and more morphologically abnormal sperm, including a higher incidence of acrosomal defects and abnormal mitochondrial sheaths. Transmission electron microscopy revealed discontinuities in the acrosome, extraneous acrosomal material under the plasma membrane, and remnants of the golgi complex under the acrosome. No differences were detected in mean-circulating follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, or testosterone between Florida panthers and other populations of mountain lions. Seminal traits and concentrations of follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and testosterone were similar between cryptorchid and noncryptorchid Florida panthers. Animals with F. concolor coryi ancestry were categorized on the basis of amount of genetic variation (low = type A; medium = type B; high = captive Piper stock). Compared to counterparts, type A Florida panthers had the lowest testicular volume and sperm-motility ratings and were the only animals exhibiting unilateral cryptorchidism. These results demonstrate the existence of major morphological and physiological differences among populations of F. concolor , a finding potentially related to differences in genetic diversity.

Indexing the Annual Fat Cycle in a Mule Deer Population

Valid use of kidney fat index to track the annual fat cycle assumes that kidney mass is a constant proportion of bled carcass mass, and assumption not met for some cervids. Among 51 mature male and 89 mature female Rocky Mountain mule deer (Odoloileus hemionus hemionus) shot a approximately weekly intervals, curves of the annual cycle of kidney fat index and kidney fat mass coincided, but curves of the annual cycles of kidney mass and bled carcass mass did not. We recommended the more easily measured and less ambiguous kidney fat mass (KGM) as the best index of the annual fat cycle. A regression model approach indicated that mean transformed ln(KFM) can be estimated with high precision at a fixed point in time with small sample sizes. Fluctuations in the annual kidney fat mass cycle and daily rates of percent change were sex-specific and were associated with a nutritional cycle−reproductive cycle interaction

Ruminoreticular Characteristics of Mule Deer

The combined rumen–reticulum of 30 mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ), collected throughout 1962, was excised and examined. Several relationships between the rumen–reticulum and body weight are described and compared to published data for the domestic cow. The volume of the mule deer rumen–reticulum is about 10% of body weight, and rumen–reticulum contents and dry matter are about 7.4% and 1%, respectively, of body weight. The relatively small size of the deer rumen seems to have important physiological implications.

Estimating Ages of Mule Deer: An Evaluation of Technique Accuracy

Ages estimated from (1) molar tooth ratios (Robinette et al. 1957), (2) visual evaluation of molariform tooth wear at a check station, and (3) regression of eye lens weight (Y) on age (X), were compared to assumed known ages obtained from counts of cementum annuli in the first permanent incisor of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). Ages of 62 of 100 mule deer about 26 months and older were not correct when estimated to the nearest year from the molar tooth ratios. Ages of 43 of 116 (37 percent) were not correct when estimated from visual evaluations of permanent molariform tooth wear at a check station and assigned to one of 5 age groups (2, 3+4, 5+6, 7+8, and 9+ years). A regression of eye lens weight (Y) on age (X) for 177 mule deer of both sexes was fitted with the equation loge Y = 0.3585710.94080 1/X with a correlation coefficient of -0.98. A deer whose lens weight exceeded about 0.9 g, corresponding to an estimated age of 16 months from birth, had a confidence interval greater than 12 months in width and could not be assigned to a single-year age-class with 95 percent confidence. None of the three methods examined was found satisfactory for accurate individual age estimation. Reliable interpretations of population dynamics of deer require that age structures be estimated with minimal error. Various techniques have been developed for age estimation of Odocoileus deer. These include: (1) tooth replacement and wear criteria (based on known-age deer) given in qualitative form (Severinghaus 1949, Ryel et al. 1961), and quantitative form (Severinghaus 1949, Ryel et al. 1961, Robinette et al. 1957, Brown 1961); (2) eye lens weight (Lord 1962, Lueth 1963, Longhurst 1964, Larsen 1964, Hoffman and Robinson 1966, Connolly et al. 1969); and (3) cementum annuli counts for Odocoileus and other cervids (Sergeant and Pimlott 1959, Mitchell 1963, Low and Cowan 1963, McEwan 1963, Gilbert 1966, Ransom 1966, 1A contribution from Colorado Federal Aid Project W-105-R, and based, in part on J. A. Ericksons M. S. Thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 2Present address: U. S. Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Boise, Idaho. Reimers and Nordby 1968, Erickson and Seliger 1969). Little has been published on the magnitudes of error involved in either qualitative or quantitative methods of estimating mule deer age from wear of permanent molariform teeth. Among qualitative estimates made to the nearest year, Browns (1961: 22) data show a 60 percent error in a sample of 47 known-age deer (0. h. columbianus) 2.5-7.5 years of age, and Ryel et al. (1961:312) show a 43 percent error in a sample of 39 known-age deer (O. virginianus) 2.5-5.5 years of age. An indication of the error involved in quantitative estimates is found in Robinette et al. (1957) and Brown (1961) who used wearreflecting measurements of molariform teeth of known-age deer. Both works show considerable overlap in the 95-percent confidence intervals about the mean measurement ratios for successive year classes. Estimation of deer age from eye-lens weight has yielded conflicting results. Lueth (1963) judged the technique inac-

Seasonal variations in volatile fatty acids in the rumen of mule deer.

Thirty mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) were collected throughout 1962. The rumino-re- ticular contents of each deer were sampled for (1) pH, (2) percent dry matter, and (3) the molar proportions of the individual volatile fatty acids (VFA) present. These data were compared to the seasonal dry matter level of several important deer browse species occurring on the same range. The pH, rumino-reticular dry matter, and acetic acid levels measured during the winter-early spring period were significantly greater than those obtained during the summer. The butyric and higher (valeric + isovaleric) acid proportions were significantly increased in the summer samples. During the autumn, pH, rumino-reticular dry matter, and acetic acid values increased and butyric and higher acid propor- tions decreased. Propionic acid proportions remained similar throughout the year. These relationships are interpreted as indicating an increased rumen fermentation rate during the summer season when range forage is succulent.

ANTLER MORPHOMETRY IN A COLORADO MULE DEER POPULATION

Symmetry was demonstrated between left and right antler beam diameters, lengths, and number of points in over 1,200 Cache la Poudre mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) segregated into two age-classes. Decreasing annual precipitation, soil moisture, and three- to five-fold decreases in mean yields of two major winter range browse species over a 4-year period did not appear to affect antler development. Simple correlation coefficients (r) of antler beam weight (Y) versus antler beam mea- surements (X) of 25 yearling deer were: diameter, 0.62; length, 0.82; and number of points, 0.49. Similar values for 30 deer about 27 months and older were: diameter, 0.82; length, 0.74; and number of points, 0.52. Multiple correlation coefficients derived from antler weight versus these variables were: 0.87 (yearlings) and 0.82 (adults). Antler weight was linearly related to estimated age (0.94), and nonlinearly to eviscerated carcass weight (0.85) in 23 mule deer ranging in age from about 15-77 months. The limitations and possible management applications of these data are described. Abstract: Symmetry was demonstrated between left and right antler beam diameters, lengths, and number of points in over 1,200 Cache la Poudre mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) segregated into two age-classes. Decreasing annual precipitation, soil moisture, and three- to five-fold decreases in mean yields of two major winter range browse species over a 4-year period did not appear to affect antler development. Simple correlation coefficients (r) of antler beam weight (Y) versus antler beam mea- surements (X) of 25 yearling deer were: diameter, 0.62; length, 0.82; and number of points, 0.49. Similar values for 30 deer about 27 months and older were: diameter, 0.82; length, 0.74; and number of points, 0.52. Multiple correlation coefficients derived from antler weight versus these variables were: 0.87 (yearlings) and 0.82 (adults). Antler weight was linearly related to estimated age (0.94), and nonlinearly to eviscerated carcass weight (0.85) in 23 mule deer ranging in age from about 15-77 months. The limitations and possible management applications of these data are described. There are no published statistical descrip- tions of antler morphometry in Rocky Moun- tain mule deer based on large, age-related samples from a single population. Cowan (1936:208-209) described the antlers and gave detailed measurements of the left beam from five Rocky Mountain mule deer of un- stated age from the Pacific Coast. Hunter (n.d.:9) listed the means and extremes of several measurements from both beams and empirically related these to age-class, car- cass weight, and several carcass measure- ments sampled from four Rocky Mountain mule deer populations in Colorado. His sample sizes ranged from 1-158 when segre- gated into five age-classes. Russo (1964: 110) gave the minimum number of points

Frequency Distributions of Mule Deer Fecal Group Counts

The Poisson, Neyman type A, negative binomial, and the Thomas distributions were fitted to the frequency distributions of the number of fecal groups per plot for mule deer (Odocoileus hemianus) counted on a systematic sample of 960, 100 ft2, and 1,687, 43.6 ft2, circular plots on two diverse Colorado habitats sampled over two seasons. The three latter distributions represented fecal-group data equally well. However, there was a consistent appearance of one or two high frequencies with very small probability of occurrence under the three distributions regardless of plot size, sampling intensity, habitat, or season of fecal-group deposition. Fecal-group densities were too low to distinguish between the three distributions, but the negative binomial offered the simplest explanaffon of ie data, and appropriate standard errors and confidence limits may be readily computed. The two following modes of deer behavior (or a combination of the two) could give rise to any of the three distributions: (1) deer wandering at random over the sampled area in groups of various sizes, and (2) single deer wandering at random within homogeneous blocks of land but a different mean rate for each bloek. Since Bennett English, and McCain (1940) first applied the method to deer (Odocoileus spp.), fecal drol?ping counts have been successfully used as a census method on a statewide basis in Michigan ( Michigan Department of Conservation 1966), on a herd basis in California (McCain 1948), on small study areas in western Texas (Wallmo 1958), and in western Washington ( Brown 1961 ) . Its validity as a census method has been experimentally confirmed with small, known, penned populations of white-tailed deer (O. virginianus) on natural habitat in Michigan (Eberhardt and Van Etten 1956, Ryel 1959); with small, approximately known, free-ranging populations of mule deer in Colorado ( Harris 1959 ) and Montana ( White 1960 ); and for black-tailed deer (O. hemionus columbianus) in California (Dasmann and Taber l9SS). Other uses, not experimentally confirmed) are as indices to the relative intensity of use 1 Contribution from Colorado Federal Aid Projects W-105-R and W-114-R. 2Present address: U. S. Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Boise, Idaho. and the relative distribution of deer within adjacent habitats ( Wallmo 1958 White 1960) disjunct habitats (Brown 1961)) and portions of fairly homogeneous habitats ( Reynolds 1964 ) . Julander ( 1955 ) used sample counts of deer and cattle fecal droppings as an index to their relative distribution within a diverse habitat in Utah. Neff (1968) presented a detailed review of the literature on the technique and concluded that the method is valid in obtaining reliable big game population data. Few authors have attempted to test the fit of appropriate mathematical models to frequency distributions of fecal group counts. However, lmowledge of an appropriate model is essential for reliable confidence-interval estimates of deer use except perhaps, for very large sample sizes. Knowledge of the model may point to the necessity for transfolming data for further regression and analysis of variance interpretations. Also, appropriate models may offer clues on behavioral patterns. Loveless ( 1967:82) sampled about 150 acres of precipitous winter range with 100ft2 circular plots and concluded that mule

Carotene and vitamin A in the liver and blood serum of a rocky mountain mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus hemionus population

Abstract 1. 1. In general, means of carotene and vitamin A in the liver and blood of 52–75 male and 61–100 female deer did not differ significantly nor was age significantly correlated with these variables in either sex, 1961–65. 2. 2. Significant seasonal variation in liver carotene occurred during 1962–64 when polynomial curves derived from the total sample peaked during the summer and troughed during the late summer and autumn. Liver vitamin A from these same deer did not show significant seasonal variation. 3. 3. Small amounts of carotene were detected in the blood serum of 10 of 52 males and 13 of 61 females. Significant seasonal variation in blood serum vitamin A were late spring peaks and autumn troughs in 1963 and late summer peaks and winter troughs in 1964. 4. 4. Means of liver carotene and vitamin A and blood carotene were significantly higher in deer collected from upper elevational strata and of 23 independent variables, elevation and climatic factors singly or in combination with indices of nutritive adequacy were most strongly associated with the levels of carotene and vitamin A in the blood and liver of mule deer.

A Comparison of Three Morphological Attributes of Mule Deer from the Guadalupe and Sacramento Mountains, New Mexico

Statistical descriptions are presented by sex and three age classes of 2,761 eviscerated carcass weights and lengths of 1,120 hind feet and 1,052 metatarsal glands sampled from two adjacent mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus , populations of southeastern New Mexico during the November 1954 hunting season. These populations occupy mountain ranges dissimilar in many ecological characteristics. A subspecific form has been named from each range. The form from the southern or Guadalupe range is named O. h. crooki while that from the northern or Sacramento range O. h. hemionus . Significantly, these ranges are also considered an area of intergradation between these two forms. The populations were compared by calculating a confidence interval about the difference between the means of each attribute. On deer of 15 months of age and older these differences were generally significant ( P = 0.95) and within rather narrow confidence intervals. It is suggested that the larger mean carcass weights and hind foot lengths sampled from the Sacramento mountains population are associated with nutritional levels, whereas the greater mean metatarsal gland lengths is of taxonomic interest.