Alma Kumbaric

Ecological approach in selecting extensive green roof plants: A data-set of Mediterranean plants

The need of planning more sustainable cities leads to a wider use of extensive green roofs (EGRs) as they provide significant advantages to the urban environment (e.g., energy conservation and increase of biodiversity). In Central and North Europe, as well as in North America and Asia, EGRs are generally included in new building designs, whereas they are still uncommon in Mediterranean countries. The adaptations of many Mediterranean plants to drought stress and their floristic diversity constitute, however, positive elements in finding solutions for them. This research proposes a methodological approach to select wild species for EGRs based on ecological characteristics (using natural ecosystems as templates for green roof design). An extensive bibliographic search on plants proposed for EGRs in Mediterranean countries has led to the creation of a wide database. Other plants were selected considering their synecological, structural, and autoecological characteristics. All the data were integrated in a comprehensive database of 138 taxa potentially suitable for setting EGRs according to their syntaxonomical classification and their ecological behavior (fitting both the Mediterranean and EGR environmental conditions). The selected taxa could enlarge the pool of species for EGRs in Mediterranean cities, increasing urban biodiversity.

Big Messages in Small Details: Nature in Roman Archaeology

Understanding human–nature relationships of the past is an important step in reconstructing how those relationships have evolved. Roman archaeological remains, especially those of the Hellenistic– Alexandrine style (influenced by the Greek and Egyptian cultures), contain several realistic details of plants and plant parts that can provide insights about human–nature relationships. Ancient scriptures suggest that plants were used beyond decorative aims to provide symbolic messages. The Ara Pacis Augustae in Rome (Italy) represents an outstanding example of such messages displayed in a substantially figurative, unwritten language. Plants and plant structures were selected for the monument based on their metaphorical relationships with specific ideas (e.g., life, rebirth, fertility) (Caneva 2010). In this paper, we provide data supporting the idea that ancient Romans were aware of even small–scale natural phenomena, which they used in artistic details to express ideas through symbolism. Humans have always felt compelled to explain nature and its manifestations. In antiquity, but still now in some cultures, this need has led to the interpretation of natural phenomena through the production of myths, gods, and heroes. Nature was the “Life” and the “Mother,” and in many cultures, nature represented the divinity in its various forms and expressions. As a consequence, for ancient people, natural phenomena were the result of divine expression, especially in relation to their influence and effects on human life (Caneva 2010; De Cleen and Lejeune, 2003; Dierbach 1833; Ducourthial 2003; Folkard 1894; Frazer 1890; Janick et al. 2007; Kandeler and Ullrich 2009; Kumbaric et al. 2012). The result of this association between nature and divinity was common; in several Mediterranean cultures, myth–based symbols became ubiquitous and their meanings well known. In ancient Rome, for example, Horace (Odes– I century B.C.E.), Ovid (Metamorphoses– I century C.E.), and Pliny the Elder (Naturalis historia– I century C.E.) describe the representation and interpretation of natural processes, plants, and animals through well–defined forms, symbols, signs, and events (Castriota 1995; Zanker 1990). The meaning of such symbols was clear not only to the educated, but also to common, illiterate people. For example, symbols for natural elements were often expressed artistically in architecture. While many of these designs would be considered merely ornamental today, for people of the past they were indicative of a deep connection with the transcendent world via nature (Vitruvius, De Architectura, Book I, 5th paragraph). Where they were used, these images were intended to show people a world where nature was full of significance, and to reinforce that life processes were strictly governed by the divine (Baumann 1993; Caneva et al. 2005; Dierbach 1833; Ducourthial 2003). Artistic representations of natural elements are common in archaeological remains and artifacts in the Mediterranean region, such as friezes, capitals, and columns. Many archaeological monuments were influenced by the ancient Hellenistic and Alexandrine culture and several contain varied representations (and specific details) of plants, animals, and natural elements. The Ara

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) Symbolism in the Ancient Euro-Mediterranean Cultures

Interpreting plant symbolism in archaeological artifacts can help us better understand humanenvironment relationships (Caneva et al. 2014; Day 2013). In the past, representations of plants and, more generally, natural elements were not only decorative or chosen for aesthetic reasons, but they often had a precise symbolic aim. We argue that in the past people were able to understand these symbolic meanings thanks to their deep connection to and understanding of their environments (Caneva 2010; Caneva et al. 2014). The grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is a cultural keystone species in many Euro-Mediterranean cultures (McGovern 2003). This species was associated with divinities, connected to specific rituals, and frequently represented in artifacts in many ancient cultures (e.g., Egyptian, Greek, and Roman cultures) (Kumbaric and Caneva 2014). In this paper, we explore interpretations of the grapevine symbol in Euro-Mediterranean artifacts to understand better how people in the past see and relate to nature. Here we show that both shape and uses of the grapevine are key to interpreting its symbolism. The ritual and religious uses of the grapes can be connected with its symbolic interpretation as the blood of the earth and life force. The wild grapevine (Vitis vinifera L., Vitaceae) is a liana. Its natural habitats include riverbanks, deciduous, and semi-deciduous forests (Arroyo-Garcia et al. 2006; Terral et al. 2010; Zohary and Hopf 2000). There are about 60 interfertile wild Vitis species, and their distribution includes Asia, North America, and Europe (Terral et al. 2010; This et al. 2006; Wan et al. 2013). The grapevine is also cultivated, and to date, research has established that there are approximately 10,000 grapevine cultivars (This et al. 2006). Numerous paleo-botanical, taxonomical, and agronomical studies show that even in the past there were different morphotypes/ varieties (Arroyo-Garcia et al. 2006; Manen et al. 2003; Núñez and Walker 1989). Since ancient times, people have cultivated and expanded the natural geographical distribution of Vitis vinifera (Figueiral et al. 2010; Núñez and Walker 1989). In the Caucasian region, which is probably the area of origin of the plant (Jackson 2000; McGovern 2003; Myles et al. 2011), it was likely cultivated and domesticated for the first time about seven to nine millennia ago (McGovern et al. 1996a, b; Myles et al. 2011; Zohary and Hopf 2000). From that region, ancient civilizations have spread grapevines to the Euro-Mediterranean and other Euro-Asiatic regions (Terral et al. 2010; Unwin 1991). In those regions, many cultures learned about its cultivation or winemaking (Branigan 1970; Guasch-Jane et al. 2006; Janick 2007; McGovern 2003; McGovern et al. 1996a). Grape and grapevine are widely represented in mural paintings, mosaics, and sculptures (Gago et al. 2009; Kumbaric and Caneva 2014). In this paper, we explore the potential explanations and interpretations of the grapevine symbol in EuroMediterranean artifacts to better understand planthuman relationships in the past. The aim of this paper is to explore how the morphological features and uses of grape, grapevine, and wine within ancient cultures, through the representation of this plant, could explain the meaning of the grapevine as a symbol and its frequent appearances in historical artifacts. The interpretation of the grapevine symbolism is possible because the representation