Alun Hardman

Sports coaching, virtue ethics and emulation.

Background: The argument in this paper is founded on two related premises. First, we claim that the moral imperative of sport is derived not from specific rules or laws associated with it but from its intrinsic nature. As engaging in sporting practices inevitably require us to be pre-occupied with central principles such as fairness (and therefore justice), our encounters with notions of ‘fair play’ and of a ‘level playing field’ provide practical examples of where sport and the moral inherently coexist. Though such encounters are contextualised through particular sporting environments, they nonetheless require sportspersons to acquaint themselves, contemplate and act upon moral principles, and elsewhere challenge and confront those whom they suspect do not. Sport, therefore, provides the context and wherewithal to ‘explore the contours of morally relevant possibilities’ and is why it can be considered a ‘moral laboratory’. The second premise we establish is that the coach plays a central role in influencing the moral terrain within contemporary sports practices. The coaching session, the training field, the changing room, the game, are all environments where children (and older athletes), alongside the presence of the coach, develop and test the moral dimensions of their evolving characters. Purpose: Our argument is that the coach, having a central role in this process, ought to positively influence what is happening, endeavouring to ensure that the moral encounters possible within the coaching context go well rather than badly. Like it or not then, we argue that coaching is to be recognised and conducted as a moral enterprise. Interventions: Drawing on the philosophical principles of virtue ethics we attempt to illuminate and make more explicit what has often been muddy and implicit with regard to the positive moral influence and role of the coach. We do this by identifying three distinct normative questions and suggest some practical implications for coaching practice based on critical reflection. First, we assess what kinds of person a coach should be. Second, we consider how a coach should behave and act. Third, we deliberate on what should be the purpose of coaching. Throughout the article we provide examples to illustrate our arguments. We suggest ways in which change to individual coaching practice and the wider institutional structures in which coaches operate can overcome actual socio-cultural and political barriers that currently prevent a more fruitful sporting environment for all.

Sport, moral interpretivism, and football's voluntary suspension of play norm

In recent years it has become increasingly the norm in football1 to kick the ball out of play when a player is, or appears to be, inadvertently injured. Kicking the ball out of play in football represents a particular instantiation of a generally understood fair play norm, the voluntary suspension of play (VSP). In the philosophical literature, support for the VSP norm is provided by John Russell (2007) who claims that his interpretivist account of sport is helpful for evaluating complex moral issues in sport in general and issues related to injury in football in particular. This paper examines whether Russells interpretivist-backed account of autonomy can adequately inform football players as to the nuanced and ambiguous moral considerations that arise in relation to the VSP norm. The paper goes on to identify the highly complex dynamic circumstances football players need to consider in order to better discharge their moral responsibilities when faced with inadvertent injuries.

Nation, state and identity in international sport

The question of eligibility for international sporting representation (ISR) has become increasingly contentious. In this paper we argue that the current ISR regulations are outdated and problematic. Sporting governing bodies ought to ignore citizenship as a criterion for ISR, and instead ISR should be based on a normative account of national belonging which would operate primarily on grounds of early socialisation and long-term residency. This approach would avoid many of the pragmatic and moral pathologies of ISR, and would utilise sports potential in promoting a liberal and progressive understanding of national ties.

The Moral Pathologies of National Sporting Representation at the Olympics

Nationality, citizenship and eligibility have become increasingly relevant in sport, especially under current conditions where there is an increasing number of players who change their ‘allegiances’ for international sporting purposes. While it is reasonable to link such trends to wider processes of globalisation and accelerated migratory flows, it is also evident that national sporting representation is subject to the venal power of commercialism. The concern is that national representation has developed into a more strategic, planned and economically driven activity that involves the overt collusion of national governing bodies and individual athletes. This paper evaluates the moral status of current international sporting representation (ISR) rules and practices as they relate to the Olympics. By drawing on de Coubertins notion of ‘sincere internationalism’ and Walsh and Guilianottis (2007) work on hyper-commercialisation in sport, we will attempt to demonstrate how some of the current practices and regulations of ISR are ethically problematic. We conclude that current ISR regulations are drawn too loosely and need to be amended in order to limit the moral pathologies identified. Our critique is informed by empirical data collected from members of the Welsh sports practice community.

Player quotas in elite club football

FIFA President Sepp Blatter’s recent attempt to resurrect the 6 + 5 quota for club football which limits the number of home-grown players to six is a protectionist measure at odds with global trends in free trade and freedom of movement. We remain unconvinced that his goals—to arrest the decline in the competitive quality and balance of international football, ensure greater investment in developing native talent and safeguarding national identity—are a problem or served well by such a regulation. We show that the impact of foreign players on national teams is mixed and restrictions are as likely to undermine the quality of national teams as much as they will improve them. Our moral case will show he is wrong to assert that elite club football’s prime agenda ought to be a nationalist one. We conclude that the primary threat to the integrity, competitive balance and cultural significance of football is not labour migration but misplaced financial imperatives that have an overriding impact on shaping football’s mode of production. The root cause for perverse labour practices, which may have a knock-on effect on the quality of some international teams, is due to the scale and uneven distribution of money. It is here, particularly with respect to the power of European ‘super-clubs’ that reform is needed most.

What's wrong with the scrum laws in rugby union? - Judgment, truth and refereeing

Abstract Officiating and the role of officials in sport is are crucial and often decisive factors in sports contests. Justice and desert of sport contests, in part, rely on officiating truths (performances) that arise from an appropriate admixture of epistemic (judgements) and metaphysical (actions) ingredients. This paper provides a rigorous and original philosophical analysis of the problems of obeying and applying the rules of sport. The paper focuses on a the scrum in rugby union. The scrum has become a focus of criticism and bewilderment. Elite rugby is damaged as a spectacle because too much time is wasted setting and re-setting scrums. Furthermore, trust in the fairness of games is eroded because the scrum is a ‘lottery’. In this paper, we identify two fundamental structural problems which contribute to the scrum controversy. First, we argue that officials cannot make reliable judgements about scrums because they cannot see what they need to see. Secondly, we argue that players cannot follow the laws of the scrum even if they have a strong desire to do so. Consequently, the scrum is not only potentially dangerous, but also flawed in terms of its capacity to actualise an intended part of the game.

The case for inter-national sport: A reply to Gleaves and Llewellyn

In their recent contribution to JPS, Gleaves and Llewellyn argue on lusory and ethical grounds that elite sporting competition should cease to be predicated on competitions between nations. From a lusory perspective, they argue that inter-national sports’ limitation on who can compete (due to it being based on national and cultural criteria) undermines some of the central principles of elite sport, such as athletic supremacy and merit. From an ethical perspective, they argue that inter-national sport is categorically unethical because the national and cultural narratives that frame such contests are inherently untruthful and inauthentic. In this article, we challenge Gleaves and Llewellyn on both these grounds and argue that national identity and representation are worthy values that can be achieved through sport, and that inter-national sport, far from being categorically unethical, has the potential to stimulate meaningful cultural conversations, both within and between national communities.