Alyce M. Dickinson

The detrimental effects of extrinsic reinforcement on "Intrinsic motivation".

Extrinsic consequences have been criticized on the grounds that they decrease intrinsic motivation or internally initiated behavior. Two popular rationales for this criticism, Lepper’s overjustification hypothesis (1981) and Deci’s motivational theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), are reviewed and the criticism is then redefined behaviorally. “Intrinsically controlled” behavior is defined as behavior maintained by response-produced reinforcers, and the question concerning extrinsic consequences is thus restated as follows: When behavior is maintained by response-produced stimuli, does extrinsic reinforcement decrease the reinforcing value of those stimuli? The empirical support for this detrimental effect is summarized briefly, and several possible explanations for the phenomenon are offered. Research results that reflect on the effect’s generality and social significance are discussed next, with the conclusion that the effect is transient and not likely to occur at all if extrinsic rewards are reinforcing, noncompetitive, based on reasonable performance standards, and delivered repetitively.

Individual Monetary Incentives: A Review of Different Types of Arrangements Between Performance and Pay

Abstract Studies in three thematic lines of research have manipulated parameters of individual monetary incentive systems to determine whether those parameters were functionally related to performance. Studies have examined: (a) the size of the percentage of total pay and base pay earned in incentive pay; (b) various ratio schedules of monetary reinforcement; and (c) linear, accelerating, and decelerating piece rate pay. The review revealed that individual monetary incentives plus feedback improved performance in comparison to hourly pay plus feedback in studies in all three thematic research lines. However, performance levels were not functionally related to (a) the size of the percentage of total pay or base pay earned in incentive pay for percentages that ranged from 3% to 100% of a persons total pay and base pay; (b) the per piece incentive amount; (c) the amount earned in total pay or total incentive pay; (d) the ratio schedule of delivery for CRF, FR3, VR2, VR3, and VR4 schedules; or (e) linear, accelerating, or decelerating piece rate pay. Taken together, the data suggest that, at least for the parameters investigated to date, the most critical determinant of performance is the ratio schedule contingency between performance and pay; that is, a relationship in which individuals earn a specified amount of money for the number of work units they complete. They also suggest that once a ratio relationship exists, variations in the parameters of individual monetary incentive systems may not greatly affect performance. Relatively few studies, however, have been conducted and further research is required.

Behavioral safety research in manufacturing settings: A review of the literature

Abstract Occupational safety continues to have large humanitarian and economic repercussions. This is particularly true in the manufacturing industry which has had the highest injury and illness rates for the past three years. Historically, attention was focused on determining the factors that correlated with safety. However, such approaches have fallen out of favor and the focus has shifted to manipulating the environment-engineering and behavioral safety. This manuscript reviews 18 behavioral safety programs implemented in manufacturing settings according to (a) settings, (b) subjects, (c) experimental design, (d) dependent variables, (e) intervention effectiveness, (f) miscellaneous effects, (g) maintenance, (h) integrity and reliability, and (i) social validity. Suggestions for future researchers are discussed.

A review of empirical studies of verbal behavior

This paper reviews empirical research which has been directly influenced by Skinner’s Verbal Behavior. Despite the importance of this subject matter, the book has generated relatively little empirical research. Most studies have focused on Skinner’s mand and tact relations while research focused on the other elementary verbal operants has been limited. However, the results of empirical research that exist support Skinner’s analysis of the distinction between elementary verbal operants and his distinction between the speaker’s and listener’s repertoires. Further, research suggests that language training programs may not be successful if they do not provide explicit training of each elementary verbal operant and independent training of speaker’s and listener’s repertoires.

The Effects of Individual Monetary Incentives With and Without Feedback

Abstract This study examined the effects of an individual monetary incentive system with and without feedback to determine if feedback would supplement the effects of incentives. Participants were seven college students who performed a computerized task called SYNWORK. SYNWORK presented four sub-tasks concurrently: memory, arithmetic, visual monitoring and auditory monitoring. Participants earned points for correct responses. The dependent variable was the number of points earned. An ABAC design was used with A = individual monetary incentives without feedback, B = individual monetary incentives with feedback, and C = hourly pay with feedback. Sessions were 90 minutes, and there were 5 to 10 sessions per phase. The point scores of six of the seven participants increased when feedback was added to the incentive system but stabilized or continued to increase when feedback was removed. The feedback intervention was staggered in time across participants, and performance increased when feedback was added, hence the data suggest that feedback enhanced the effects of the incentives. One possible reason for the reversal failure is that feedback evoked higher levels of performance that were then maintained by the additional incentives. Because performance did not reverse, however, the results must be viewed cautiously.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior Management: An Objective Comparison

Abstract This article compares traditional industrial-organizational psychology (I-O) research published in Journal of Applied Psychology (JAP) with organizational behavior management (OBM) research published in Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM). The purpose of this comparison was to identify similarities and differences with respect to research topics and methodologies, and to offer suggestions for what OBM researchers and practitioners can learn from I-O. Articles published in JAP from 1987–1997 were reviewed and compared to articles published during the same decade in JOBM (Nolan, Jarema, & Austin, 1999). This comparison includes (a) author characteristics, (b) authors published in both journals, (c) topics addressed, (d) type of article, and (e) research characteristics and methodologies. Among the conclusions are: (a) the primary relative strength of OBM is its practical significance, demonstrated by the proportion of research addressing applied issues; (b) the greatest strength of traditional I-O appears to be the variety and complexity of organizational research topics; and (c) each field could benefit from contact with research published in the other.

Effects of alternative activities on time allocated to task performance under different percentages of incentive pay

Abstract This study examined the effects of different percentages of incentive pay on the time spent working and on the performance of a quality inspection task when competitive alternative tasks were available. The independent variables were the percentage of incentive pay and the number of opportunities to play computer games. Three percentages of incentive pay were examined: 0%, 10%, and 100%. Opportunities to play computer games were provided either 2 or 4 times during a 70-minute session. A3 2 factorial design was used. Participants were 106 college students. Geometric figures were presented on a computer screen, and participants indicated which were defective. The dependent variables were the time spent working and the number of screens completed correctly. Participants who received incentive pay worked significantly longer than those who received base pay only, however, time spent working was not affected by the level of incentive. Although a significant correlation was found between the time worked and performance, there were no differences between the three groups with respect to task performance. Previous researchers have suggested that the main effect of incentives may be to increase the time spent working. This is the first study to demonstrate that time working was a function of incentive pay.

Individual Performance as a Function of Individual and Group Pay Contingencies

An alternating-treatment design was used to compare the productivity of college students engaged in a card-sorting task under an individual monetary incentive system and a 10-member group monetary incentive system. In both pay conditions, subjects received a base pay plus incentives contingent upon the number of cards sorted in 20-minute sessions. In the individual incentive condition, subjects earned

The Impact of Public Feedback on Three Recycling-Related Behaviors in South Korea.

0.005 for each card sorted over 400 cards. In the group incentive condition, incentives were based on the group average, with all subjects earning

The relative effects of different frequencies of feedback on work performance: A simulation

0.005 for each card by which the group average exceeded 400. Subjects received feedback on their performance and the performance of other group members in both conditions. The number of cards sorted did not differ significantly under the two pay systems. Subjects reported the systems to be equally enjoyable and demanding, however, when asked which pay system they would prefer to work under in the future, high performers chose the individual incentive system, and low performers chose the group incentive system.