Ambika Krishnakumar

Interparental conflict and youth problem behaviors: A meta-analysis

We examined the proposition that interparental conflict is associated with internalizing and externalizing problems in youth ages 5 to 18. This examination was done by conducting a meta-analysis of 348 statistical effects from 68 studies. The average effect size (d-value) was .32. There was considerable variability among effect sizes and this variability was associated with the average time since separation for separated/divorced parents, the socioeconomic status composition of the sample, and average parental education in the sample. The variability among effect sizes also was associated with the source of the informant used to assess interparental conflict and youth problem behaviors. Surprisingly, many of the other study characteristics we coded were not associated with variability in the effect sizes.

Exposures to Airborne Particulate Matter and Adverse Perinatal Outcomes: A Biologically Plausible Mechanistic Framework for Exploring Potential Effect Modification by Nutrition

Objectives The specific objectives are threefold: to describe the biologically plausible mechanistic pathways by which exposure to particulate matter (PM) may lead to the adverse perinatal outcomes of low birth weight (LBW), intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR), and preterm delivery (PTD); review the evidence showing that nutrition affects the biologic pathways; and explain the mechanisms by which nutrition may modify the impact of PM exposure on perinatal outcomes. Methods We propose an interdisciplinary conceptual framework that brings together maternal and infant nutrition, air pollution exposure assessment, and cardiopulmonary and perinatal epidemiology. Five possible albeit not exclusive biologic mechanisms have been put forth in the emerging environmental sciences literature and provide corollaries for the proposed framework. Conclusions Protecting the environmental health of mothers and infants remains a top global priority. The existing literature indicates that the effects of PM on LBW, PTD, and IUGR may manifest through the cardiovascular mechanisms of oxidative stress, inflammation, coagulation, endothelial function, and hemodynamic responses. PM exposure studies relating mechanistic pathways to perinatal outcomes should consider the likelihood that biologic responses and adverse birth outcomes may be derived from both PM and non-PM sources (e.g., nutrition). In the concluding section, we present strategies for empirically testing the proposed model and developing future research efforts.

Marital Conflict, Parent-Child Relations, and Youth Maladjustment: A Longitudinal Investigation of Spillover Effects

Contemporaneous and longitudinal associations among marital conflict, parentchild relationship quality, and youth maladjustment were examined using data from the National Survey of Families and Households.Analyses were based on 551 married families with a child age 5 to 11 years at Wave 1. The concurrent association between marital conflict and youth externalizing problems at both waves was mediated completely at Wave 1 and partially at Wave 2 by harsh discipline and parent-youth conflict. The concurrent association between marital conflict and internalizing problems at both waves was mediated partially through parent-youth conflict. Longitudinal mediating effects were detected through stable marital conflict over 5 years and through its connection with parent-youth conflict. Findings delineate areas of specificity and stability in marital conflict processes as children transition from middle childhood through adolescence.

Children in low-income, urban settings. Interventions to promote mental health and well-being

Urbanization provides unique political, cultural, economic, and educational opportunities for children and families. However, it may also have a negative impact on the mental health and well-being of children and adolescents, particularly when they are exposed to settings with high rates of crime, violence, delinquency, substance use, abuse, and poverty. Psychologists are well suited to intervene in problems associated with urbanization. However, most psychological services have been directed toward children who are experiencing problems, and there has been less focus on population-based or preemptive interventions that prevent problems before they occur. This review presents 11 recommendations for urban interventions that build on individual, family, and community strengths to promote the mental health and well-being of urban children and adolescents.

Youth Perceptions of Interparental Conflict, Ineffective Parenting, and Youth Problem Behaviors in European-American and African-American Families

The purpose of this study was to examine the spillover of youth perceptions of interparental conflict (IPC) into ineffective parenting and youth problem behaviors in a sample of 542 European-American (EA) and 150 African-American (AA) youth. Data were collected from youth aged 10 through 18 yearsusing a school-based survey. The findings indicated that IPC was associatedpositively with youth problem behaviors in both European-American and African-American samples. For EA families, IPC was linked with youth externalizing problem behaviors through lower levels of parental monitoring, maternal acceptance, and higher levels of parent–youth conflict, and with internalizing problem behaviors through higher levels of maternal psychologicalcontrol and parent–youth conflict. Although IPC was associated with higher levels of parent–youth conflict and maternal psychological control and lower levels of parental monitoring in AA families, the spillover model received minimal support because parenting measures were not associated systematically with youth problem behaviors.

Early intervention and recovery among children with failure to thrive: follow-up at age 8.

OBJECTIVES. We sought to examine the impact of a randomized, controlled trial of home visiting among infants with failure to thrive on growth, academic/cognitive performance, and home/classroom behavior at age 8. METHODS. Infants with failure to thrive (N = 130) or adequate growth (N = 119) were recruited from pediatric primary care clinics serving low-income, urban communities. Eligibility criteria included age <25 months, gestational age >36 weeks, birth weight >2500 g, and no significant medical conditions. Evaluation included anthropometries, Bayley scales, maternal anthropometries, demographics, negative affect, IQ, and the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment scale. Infants with failure to thrive were treated in an interdisciplinary growth and nutrition clinic and randomized into clinical-intervention-plus-home-intervention or clinical-care-only groups. The home-visiting curriculum promoted maternal sensitivity, parent-infant relationships, and child development. Follow-up visits were conducted by evaluators who were unaware of the childrens growth or intervention history. At age 8, the evaluation included anthropometries, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children III, and the Wide Range Achievement Test, Revised. Mothers completed the Child Behavior Checklist and teachers completed the Teacher Report Form. ANALYSIS. Multivariate analyses of variance were used to examine differences in growth, cognitive/academic performance, and home/school behavior, adjusted by maternal education, public assistance, and, when appropriate, infant Bayley score, maternal BMI, height, negative affect, IQ, and Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment scores. RESULTS. Retention was 74% to 78%. Children in the adequate-growth group were significantly taller, heavier, and had better arithmetic scores than the clinical-intervention-only group, with the clinical-intervention-plus-home-intervention group intermediate. There were no group differences in IQ, reading, or mother-reported behavior problems. Children in the clinical-intervention-plus-home-intervention group had fewer teacher-reported internalizing problems and better work habits than the clinical-intervention-only group. CONCLUSIONS. Early failure to thrive increased childrens vulnerability to short stature, poor arithmetic performance, and poor work habits. Home visiting attenuated some of the negative effects of early failure to thrive, possibly by promoting maternal sensitivity and helping children build strong work habits that enabled them to benefit from school. Findings provide evidence for early intervention programs for vulnerable infants.

Failure-to-thrive, maltreatment and the behavior and development of 6-year-old children from low-income, urban families: a cumulative risk model.

OBJECTIVE A cumulative risk model was used to examine the relationship among failure-to-thrive (FTT), maltreatment, and four aspects of childrens development: cognitive performance (standardized testing), adaptive functioning at school, and classroom behavior (teacher report), and behavior at home (maternal report). METHOD The sample included 193 6-year-old children and their families, recruited from pediatric clinics serving inner-city, low-income, primarily African-American families, who were part of a longitudinal investigation of child development and maltreatment. Four risk groups were formed based on their growth and maltreatment history: neither FTT nor Maltreatment, FTT Only, Maltreatment Only, and both FTT and Maltreatment. FTT was defined as a deceleration in weight gain (weight-for-age below the 5th percentile) prior to 25 months of age among children born at term with birth weight appropriate for gestational age. Maltreatment was defined as having at least one report to CPS for neglect, physical abuse and/or sexual abuse. RESULTS Risk status was negatively associated with each of the four developmental outcomes. Children with a history of both FTT and maltreatment had more behavior problems and worse cognitive performance and school functioning than children with neither risk factor. Children with only one risk factor (either FTT or maltreatment) achieved intermediate scores. CONCLUSIONS Findings support a cumulative risk model as being more detrimental to childrens development than the presence of a single risk factor alone, consistent with theories linking the accumulation of environmental risks to negative consequences. These results underscore the importance of interventions to prevent both FTT and maltreatment during childrens early years.

Effects of Economic Pressure on Marital Conflict in Romania

This study examined the interrelationships among economic pressure, maternal depression, social support, and marital conflict in a sample of 239 mothers in Romania. Data were collected through a school-based survey. Findings indicated that higher levels of economic pressure were associated with higher levels of marital conflict. Economic pressure was also associated with higher marital conflict indirectly through increased maternal depression and lowered social support. The present results were similar to those obtained in studies conducted among U.S. samples.

Longitudinal predictors of competence among African American children: The role of distal and proximal risk factors

Abstract In this investigation, we examined the influence of distal and proximal risk factors (family economic hardship, perceived neighborhood threats, intensity of negative life events, maternal alcohol abuse, maternal depression, and poor quality of the home environment) on child competence (externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors and cognitive performance) at ages 5 and 6. These complex interrelationships were examined using four explanatory statistical models: (a) independent–additive, (b) cumulative/exponential, (c) mediating, and (4) interactive. The sample included 217 African American mothers and their children recruited from primary care clinics serving low-income, urban families. Mothers and children participated in annual evaluations that included standardized developmental assessments, home observations, and questionnaires on demographics, childrens behavior, and maternal and family functioning. Children demonstrated more behavior problems and scored lower on measures of cognitive performance than national norms at ages 5 and 6. Results supported the four statistical models (although to different degrees) on how and under what conditions distal and proximal risk factors were linked to child competence. Results indicated that distal and proximal risk factors predict cross-sectional models of competence but show limited long-term effect, partly due to the stability and maintenance of behaviors over time. Interventions to prevent behavioral and developmental problems among young children should begin early and target both distal and proximal risk factors.

Predicting Longitudinal Growth Curves of Height and Weight Using Ecological Factors for Children with and without Early Growth Deficiency

Growth curve models were used to examine the effect of genetic and ecological factors on changes in height and weight of 225 children from low income, urban families who were assessed up to eight times in the first 6 y of life. Children with early growth deficiency [failure to thrive (FTT)] (n = 127) and a community sample of children without growth deficiency (n = 98) were examined to evaluate how genetic, child and family characteristics influenced growth. Children of taller and heavier parents, who were recruited at younger ages and did not have a history of growth deficiency, had accelerated growth from recruitment through age 6 y. In addition, increases in height were associated with better health, less difficult temperament, nurturant mothers and female gender; increases in weight were associated with better health. Children with a history of growth deficiency demonstrated slower rates of growth than children in the community group without a history of growth deficiency. In the community group, changes in childrens height and weight were related to maternal perceptions of health and temperament and maternal nurturance during feeding, whereas in the FTT group, maternal perceptions and behavior were not in synchrony with childrens growth. These findings suggest that, in addition to genetic factors, growth is dependent on a nurturant and sensitive caregiving system. Interventions to promote growth should consider child and family characteristics, including maternal perceptions of childrens health and temperament and maternal mealtime behavior.