Amihai Mazar

Industrial apiculture in the Jordan valley during Biblical times with Anatolian honeybees

Although texts and wall paintings suggest that bees were kept in the Ancient Near East for the production of precious wax and honey, archaeological evidence for beekeeping has never been found. The Biblical term “honey” commonly was interpreted as the sweet product of fruits, such as dates and figs. The recent discovery of unfired clay cylinders similar to traditional hives still used in the Near East at the site of Tel Reov in the Jordan valley in northern Israel suggests that a large-scale apiary was located inside the town, dating to the 10th–early 9th centuries B.C.E. This paper reports the discovery of remains of honeybee workers, drones, pupae, and larvae inside these hives. The exceptional preservation of these remains provides unequivocal identification of the clay cylinders as the most ancient beehives yet found. Morphometric analyses indicate that these bees differ from the local subspecies Apis mellifera syriaca and from all subspecies other than A. m. anatoliaca, which presently resides in parts of Turkey. This finding suggests either that the Western honeybee subspecies distribution has undergone rapid change during the last 3,000 years or that the ancient inhabitants of Tel Reov imported bees superior to the local bees in terms of their milder temper and improved honey yield.

14C Dates and the Iron Age Chronology of Israel: A Response

Boaretto et al. (2005) published 68 radiocarbon dates relating to 30 samples from 10 Iron Age sites in Israel as part of their Early Iron Age Dating Project. Though the main goal of their paper was an interlaboratory comparison, they also presented results of Bayesian models, calculating the transition from Iron Age I to Iron Age II in Israel to be about 900 BCE instead of the conventional date of about 1000 BCE. Since this date has great importance for all of Eastern Mediterranean archaeology, in this paper we examine the results in light of the dates published in the above-mentioned article. Our paper was revised in light of new data and interpretations published by Sharon et al. (2007). Following a survey of the contexts and specific results at each site, we present several Bayesian models. Model C2 suggests the date range of 961?942 BCE (68% probability) for the transition from Iron Age I to Iron Age II, while Model C3 indicates a somewhat later date of 948?919 BCE (compare the date 992?961 BCE calculated at Tel Rehov for the same transition). In our Model D, we calculated this transition date at Megiddo as taking place between 967?943 BCE. Finally, we calculated the range of dates of major destruction levels marking the end of the Iron Age I, with the following results: Megiddo VIA: 1010?943 BCE; Yoqne?am XVII: 1045?997 BCE; Tell Qasile X: 1039?979 BCE; Tel Hadar: 1043?979 BCE (all in the 68.2% probability range). Figure 4 indicates that the transition between Iron I and II probably occurred between these above-mentioned destruction events and the dates achieved in our Models C2 or C3, namely during the first half of the 10th century BCE. This study emphasizes the sensitivity of Bayesian models to outliers, and for reducing or adding dates from the models. This sensitivity should be taken into account when using Bayesian models for interpreting radiometric dates in relation to subtle chronological questions in historical periods.

The Iron Age Chronology Debate: Is the Gap Narrowing? Another Viewpoint

The following is a response to an article in this journal by Israel Finkelstein and Eli Piasetzky (2011) summarizing their current opinion on the Iron Age chronology debate, which is an abridged presentation of recent more detailed studies by these authors (Finkelstein and Piasetzky 2009, 2010). The title of their article includes the question: “Is the gap narrowing?” I will try to explain that the gap indeed is narrowing, yet the authors went only halfway and there are still significant points of disagreement (see already Mazar 2005, 2008; Mazar and Bronk Ramsey 2008, 2010; see table 2 on p. 111 for a presentation of the Modified Conventional Chronology presented below).

Radiocarbon dates from Iron Age strata at Tel Beth Shean and Tel Rehov

We discuss the significance of 32 radiocarbon dates from the archaeological sites of Tel Beth Shean and Tel Rehov in northern Israel. All dates are from Iron Age I and II archaeological contexts (12th-8th centuries BCE). Most of the dates were done on short-lived samples (seeds and olive pits), while some are on charred timber. The samples are organized in several homogeneous clusters according to their context. This series is one of the largest groups of 14 C dates from the Iron Age in the Levant. The paper discusses the correlation between the 14 C dates and the traditional archaeological dates of the same context. Results from two laboratories and two calibration curves are compared, showing some significant differences in one case. We conclude with an evaluation of the relevance of 14 C dating for the current debate about the chronology of the Iron Age in Israel, and in historical periods in general.

Iron Age beehives at Tel Reḥov in the Jordan valley

Beehives were discovered in a densley built area in the Iron Age city of Reḥov (tenth-ninth century BC). They consisted of hollow clay cylinders, each with a little hole at one end (for the bee) and a removable lid at the other (for the bee keeper). These beehives, the earliest found in the Near East, were identified by analogy with examples pictured on Egyptian tombs and in use by traditional peoples. The suggested identification was confirmed by chemical analysis.

A Response to Finkelstein and Piasetzky's Criticism and "New Perspective"

The following short paper is a response to criticism by Finkelstein and Piasetzky (2010b), published in the present issue of Radiocarbon, of our 2008 paper in Radiocarbon concerning the evaluation of 14C dates from Iron Age levels in Israel published by Boaretto et al. (2005). We refer to criticism concerning exclusion and inclusion of data. We also evaluate new models suggested by Finkelstein and Piasetzky and in particular their suggestion of regional stages marking the end of the Iron Age in Israel. We also comment on several methodological issues.

Four thousand years of history at Tel Beth-Shean : An account of the renewed excavations

From its towering command of a strategic crossroads, the steep mound of Beth-Shean beckoned excavators in the early part of this century. Returning to the site with its extended settlement history, archaeologists from the Hebrew Universitys Institute of Archaeology opened a large-scale project in 1989. Eight seasons of excavation have answered many of the unresolved issues, produced more precise stratigraphic and architectural definitions, and illuminated the settlement continuum and its shifting character on the tell. Of special note are the surprising finds from the Egyptian New Kingdom period when Beth-Shean served as the center of Egyptian imperial rule in the north of Canaan.

On the Israelite Fortress at Arad

In the first reports on the excavations at Arad, Y. Aharoni attributed to the last two Iron Age levels (Strata VII-VI) a casemate wall, which was constructed on top of the massive wall of the previous fortress (Aharoni and Amiran 1964: 135; Aharoni 1967: 245-46). Already in the second preliminary report, however, Aharoni reported on the stratigraphic difficulties concerning this wall, observed by the architect I. Dunayevsky during the 1965 season of excavations. In the same report, the temple of Arad was said to have been destroyed by the inner wall of the casemate of Stratum VI, and the temple was noted as continuing in use until Stratum VII, or the time of Josiah (Aharoni 1967: 246, n. 27; 249; this conclusion contradicted the attribution of the casemates to both Strata VII and VI, which was still maintained, p. 244). In later publications the casemate wall was attributed solely to Stratum VI, and the massive wall to Strata X-VII.

Tel Beth Shean During the EB IB Period: Evidence for Social Complexity in the Late 4th Millennium BC

Abstract The Early Bronze I (henceforth EB I) is a formative era in the Southern Levant. Modern research has thrown light on many aspects of this period: its long duration, its spatial and temporal subdivisions, its settlement pattern, its socio-economic characterizations, and the phenomenon of Egyptian colonization in southern Palestine (e.g. Stager 1992, 28–34; Joffe 1993, 39–62; Braun 1996). Among the prominent discoveries related to the later part of EB I (denoted here EB IB) are the monumental temple at Megiddo and the notion that certain sites were fortified. These features may require us to change the way in which we conceive of socio-political developments during the late 4th millennium BC, in particular in northern Palestine. In the present paper, we present two phases of an unusual EB IB building excavated at Tel Beth Shean. The stratigraphy, architecture and finds from this building raise intriguing questions concerning architectural traditions, function, economy, social complexity and regionalism in material culture. The evidence also bears on matters of chronology, and the way in which we define the transition from EB I to EB II in the region. While a full account will appear in the final excavation report (Mazar (ed.) forthcoming), some of these issues were felt to warrant more immediate consideration.

Studies in the archaeology of the Iron Age in Israel and Jordan

Thirteen essays on the Iron Age in Israel and Jordan, covering settlement patterns, iconography, cult, palaeography and the archaeology of certain key sites. This volume offers an exceptionally informed update in a fast-moving area of discovery and interpretation. The first section deals with spatial archaeology and settlement patterns, all the papers based on the fieldwork by A. Zertal in Samaria, A. Ofer in Judah, G. Lehmann in the Akko Plain, and S. Gibson in various areas in the hill country of Israel. The second section covers religion and iconography. The two single Iron Age temples known today in Israel, at Dan and Arad, are discussed by A. Biran and Z. Herzog. R. Kletter and K. Prag discuss clay figurines and other cult objects; T. Ornan identifies Ishtar on a number of seals and on a silver pendant; and N. Franklin examines the iconography and meaning of the wall relief in Room V at Sargons palace in Khorsabad. The last section includes three studies related to specific sites. M. Steiner considers urban development in Jerusalem during Iron Age II; A. Mazar presents data from Iron Age II Beth Shean, and P. Bienkowski and L. Sedman discuss finds from Buseirah, the capital of Edom.