Amy Dickman

Aspects of the management of cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus jubatus, trapped on Namibian farmlands

Abstract The Namibian cheetah population has recently undergone serious decline due to human-mediated removals, and investigating the rates and causes of such removals is an important aspect of the future management of cheetah populations outside protected areas. We examined cheetahs that were reported live-trapped or killed on Namibian farmlands between 1991 and 1999. A perceived threat to livestock or game led to the vast majority of live captures and to almost half of the cheetah deaths investigated. Despite this, livestock predation from cheetahs appeared to be minimal, and was usually perpetrated by cheetahs with injuries. Most of the cheetahs were trapped in groups, and cheetahs’ relative sociality leads to the easy removal of entire social units. Long-term monitoring must include detailed consideration of these indiscriminate removals, as they involve many cheetahs, fluctuate between years, often go unreported, and are likely to have a serious impact on cheetah populations outside protected areas.

Perceived effectiveness of livestock-guarding dogs placed on namibian farms

Abstract Evaluations of 117 livestock-guarding dogs placed on Namibian farms between January 1994 and November 2001 were conducted as part of a study aimed at reducing livestock depredation rates on both commercial and communal farmland. The perceptions of livestock farmers were evaluated in terms of their satisfaction with the guarding dogs, the level of care given to the dogs, and the attentiveness, trustworthiness, and protectiveness of the dogs. Guarding dogs were very successful in terms of reducing livestock losses, with 73% of responding farmers reporting a large decline in losses since acquisition of a guarding dog, and the same percentage seeing an economic benefit to having the dog. Farmer satisfaction with the dogs was high, with 93% of farmers willing to recommend the program, and the care given to the dogs was also good. The dogs exhibited high levels of protectiveness and attentiveness, although trustworthiness was relatively low. The level of care provided by farmers was lower for older dogs than for younger dogs, and older dogs appeared to be less trustworthy than young dogs. There were no obvious differences in effectiveness between the sexes, or between dogs placed on communal farms and those on commercial ranches. The majority of dogs exhibited behavioral problems at some stage, particularly chasing game, staying at home, and harassing livestock, but corrective training solved 61% of the reported problems. We conclude that with the correct training and care, livestock-guarding dogs can be an effective method of livestock protection on Namibian farmlands.

Demography of the Namibian cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus jubatus

Abstract Namibian cheetahs have suffered, and continue to suffer, high levels of removal due to conflict with local farmers, and it is important to understand the demography of this population in order to determine its likely persistence. Examination of cheetahs reported live-trapped or killed by local farmers, combined with subsequent information from radio-telemetry, allowed demographic parameters such as sex ratios, age and social structure, litter size, interbirth intervals and survivorship to be estimated for cheetahs on Namibian farmlands. Cub mortality was relatively low, but adult mortality was high, particularly for males, and peaked at 5–6 years of age. Neither marking nor relocating cheetahs seemed to affect survivorship, and there was no difference in survivorship between the sexes. Time spent in captivity did not appear to affect survival after release. These findings will be useful in formulating recommendations regarding the conservation and sustainable utilization of cheetah populations outside protected areas.

MORPHOLOGY, PHYSICAL CONDITION, AND GROWTH OF THE CHEETAH (ACINONYX JUBATUS JUBATUS )

Abstract Information regarding morphology of wild cheetahs is scant, and even where data exist they rarely were collected using a standardized methodology. We used a consistent technique to examine 241 wild Namibian cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus jubatus) to study morphology, sexual dimorphism, growth rates, and physical condition and to investigate how these data compared with those in previous studies. Significant sexual dimorphism was evident for all measurements. The majority of cheetahs were in excellent condition at the time of examination, although old cheetahs and those that had been held captive for more than a month were in significantly poorer condition. Both male and female cheetahs reached adult body mass at 49–96 months of age. These data differed significantly from those collected during other studies, although such differences may be due to variations in collection methodology. It is therefore vital to standardize morphometric data collection techniques so that the true extent of differences between populations can be assessed more accurately. A suggested standardized collection methodology is presented.

Human Aspects of Cheetah Conservation: Lessons Learned from the Namibian Farmlands

Over the past century, the world’s cheetah population has undergone severe reduction in both numbers and range. This is due to factors such as habitat fragmentation resulting from human development, the depletion of their natural prey base as land becomes dominated by agriculture and the resultant conflict with humans for livestock and farmed game. Although long-term studies have provided useful information regarding the ecology and biology of the cheetah, the real conservation challenge lies in a better understanding of human behavior and attitudes toward the cheetah. Only by addressing human issues can cheetah conservation strategies be implemented across large areas of their range. This article examines and discusses novel approaches aimed at modifying human behavior in those areas most critical for future cheetah conservation. These approaches could also be valuable in other areas where human conflict is a significant threat to the persistence of large carnivores.

DENTAL ANOMALIES AND INCIDENCE OF PALATAL EROSION IN NAMIBIAN CHEETAHS (ACINONYX JUBATUS JUBATUS)

Abstract Two hundred and eight wild-caught cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus jubatus) were live trapped on Namibian farmlands and examined for signs of dental anomalies. Three anomalies were recorded: erosion of the upper palate (possibly a predisposition to focal palatine erosion, where the first lower molar penetrates the palatine mucosa), crowding of lower incisors, and absence of one or both upper premolars. Just over 40% of cheetahs examined showed deep palatine erosion, and 15.3% of these had perforated upper palates. In addition, 31.7% of cheetahs examined had crowded lower incisors and 20.9% had one or both upper premolars missing. The incidence of focal palatine erosion is of particular interest as it has previously been recorded only in captive cheetahs, where it was attributed to a soft captive diet, and not previously recorded for wild individuals. To attempt further understanding of potential causes of such erosion, degree of erosion was examined in relation to sex, age, region, time in captivity, and occurrence of other dental anomalies. No relationship was found between severity of erosion and time spent in captivity, while juveniles showed more severe erosion than adult cheetahs. Cheetahs missing either one or both upper premolars showed a higher incidence of deep erosion, as was true for cheetahs that exhibited crowded lower incisors. The traditional explanation of focal palatine erosion being an artifact of captivity does not explain its occurrence in this sample population of cheetahs, the majority of which were raised entirely in the wild.

Survivorship and Causes of Mortality for Livestock-Guarding Dogs on Namibian Rangeland

Abstract This paper reports upon the survivorship of 143 livestock-guarding dogs placed on Namibian rangeland between January 1994 and January 2002 as part of a study of techniques that could be used to reduce stock losses on commercial ranches and communal farms. During the study period, 61 (42.7%) of the dogs placed were removed from working situations. Deaths accounted for 49 (80.3%) of removals, while the remaining 12 (19.7%) were transfers out of the program. Causes of death varied by both farm type and age group. The most common cause of death for working dogs, especially young ones, was accidental, which accounted for 22 reported deaths, while culling of the dog by the owner was the reason for 12 working dog deaths, all of which occurred on commercial ranches. The mean survival time as a working dog was estimated as 4.16 (±0.40) years for males, 4.65 (±0.45) years for females, and 4.31 (±0.31) years for all dogs placed. Survival distributions differed slightly (Pu2009=u20090.049) between farm types, with adult mortality less common on communal farms than on commercial ranches. There was no significant difference (Pu2009=u20090.612) between the sexes regarding survival distributions. With good care of the dogs and sufficient information provided to farmers, guarding dogs can act as an effective and economically beneficial method of livestock protection, with implications for range management both in Namibia and elsewhere.

Ecology of Free-Ranging Cheetahs

Considerable research has been conducted on cheetah ecology. Cheetahs can exist in a wide variety of habitats from thick scrub to open grassland, and habitat selection is based on a variety of factors, including visibility, prey density, and avoidance of competitively superior predators. Cheetahs naturally occur at low densities and require a prey base of small to medium-sized ungulates that can be consumed rapidly, minimizing the risks for cheetahs of being detected by larger carnivores that can usurp their kills. Cheetahs exhibit wide ranging movements and large home ranges—over 2000 km 2 in some areas. Reported densities generally range from 0.3 to 3.0 adult cheetahs per 100 km 2 . The species distribution, density, and activity patterns are impacted by human activities and the presence of larger carnivores. Understanding cheetah habitat requirements and movement ecology, especially pertaining to long-distance movements, will become progressively more important as the cheetah’s range becomes increasingly fragmented.

Use of Livestock Guarding Dogs to Reduce Human-Cheetah Conflict

Mitigating conflict between livestock farmers and cheetahs is key to conserving the species. Livestock guarding dogs (LGDs) have been used to reduce livestock losses to carnivores around the world. In Africa, cheetah conservation organizations have introduced purebred Anatolian Shepherds, encouraged the use of local dogs, and have experimented with crossbreeding local with purebred dogs. The resulting research has provided insights into how LGDs work under African conditions, guarding their livestock against the large carnivore guild. In this chapter, we examine the effectiveness of LGDs, both in terms of reducing livestock losses in a cost-effective manner and preventing retaliatory killing of cheetahs and other carnivores. Furthermore, we discuss the various factors contributing to LGD effectiveness, for example, behavioral training, working conditions, and breeding. Finally, we examine the future of LGDs as a means for human-cheetah conflict mitigation.

Capture, Care, Collaring, and Collection of Biomedical Samples in Free-Ranging Cheetahs

Live capture, tagging, and sampling of free-ranging animals are important means of acquiring health, genetic, and ecological data for wildlife conservation and management. We summarize best-practice procedures for capture, anesthesia, handling, sample collection, and marking of cheetahs. In all capture events involving anesthesia, data collection should be maximized, such as preferentially deploying global positioning system (instead of radio) collars, collecting biomedical samples, and recording morphometric measurements. Standardization of protocols, data collection, and the methods used to individually identify animals are essential and facilitate comparative and collaborative data analyses. We provide procedural guidelines and online links for protocols and data-recording sheets that we recommend for routine use in cheetah capture and processing operations.