Amy G. Halberstadt

Affective Social Competence

A theoretical model for affective social competence is described. Affective social competence (ASC) is comprised of three integrated and dynamic components: sending affective messages, receiving affective messages, and experiencing affect. Central and interconnected abilities within each component include awareness and identification of affect, working within a complex and constantly changing social context, and management and regulation. The dynamic integration of the components is emphasized and potential mediating factors are outlined. The model is placed within the context of previous research and theory related to affective social competence; how the model advances future research is also explicated for each component. Research with special populations of children is described to highlight the importance of affective social competence in social relationships and the promise of the ASC model for future research and practice.

A Meta-Analysis of Family Expressiveness and Children's Emotion Expressiveness and Understanding

SUMMARY We assessed associations between family styles of expressing emotion and childrens expressive styles and skill in understanding emotion. We used a meta-analytic strategy for synthesizing the studies in these two areas, and we examined moderating variables of emotion valence, age group, and measurement diversity in the relationship between family expressiveness and outcomes in children. For emotional expressiveness, positive family expressiveness and positive childrens expressiveness were consistently associated across age, but negative family expressiveness and negative childrens expressiveness were linearly and curvilinearly related across age, with a U-shaped relationship. For emotion understanding, positive family expressiveness and childrens understanding were not related at any age. Negative and negative-submissive family expressiveness and childrens emotion understanding tended to be related across age, both linearly and curvilinearly (an inverted U-shaped relationship). Explanations for these relations and future goals for research are discussed.

Gender, nonverbal behavior, and perceived dominance: a test of the theory

Cette etude ne permet pas de verifier la theorie selon laquelle le comportement non-verbal varierait en fonction du genre et de la dominance des sujets (Henley et Goffman)

“Subordination” and Nonverbal Sensitivity: A Study and Synthesis of Findings Based on Trait Measures

We conducted a primary study and a meta-analysis on the relation of trait “subordination” measures to trait measures of sensitivity to nonverbal cues, in order to test the hypothesis that more subordinate individuals have enhanced ability to decode nonverbal cues. In the primary study, subordination measures included socioeconomic background, two dominance scales, a capacity for status scale, a control by powerful others scale, self-ratings of leadership and social status in high school, and for women, measures of sex role values. Sensitivity to nonverbal cues was measured using three psychometric tests, Results showed little overall support for the subordination hypothesis, and some results were significantly opposite to the prediction. The meta-analysis showed that dominance, capacity for status, socioeconomic status, and womens sex role values all had relations to nonverbal sensitivity that were opposite to the predictions of the subordination hypothesis. Future prospects for the subordination hypothesis with respect to nonverbal sensitivity are discussed.

Emotion Development in Infancy through the Lens of Culture

The goal of this review is to consider how culture impacts the socialization of emotion development in infancy, and infants’ and young children’s subsequent outcomes. First, we argue that parents’ socialization decisions are embedded within cultural structures, beliefs, and practices. Second, we identify five broad cultural frames (collectivism/individualism; power distance; children’s place in family and culture; ways children learn; and value of emotional experience and expression) that help to organize current and future research. For each frame, we discuss the impact on parents’ socialization practices and infants’ subsequent outcomes relating to emotion-related experience, expression, and understanding. We also generate testable hypotheses to further our understanding of the relationships between the five frames and emotion development in infancy.

Emotions are a window into one's heart”: a qualitative analysis of parental beliefs about children's emotions across three ethnic groups.

We conducted a qualitative study to explore parental beliefs about emotions in the family across three cultures (African American, European American, and Lumbee American Indian), using the underutilized yet powerful methodology of focus groups. The main goal of this monograph is to understand parents’ beliefs about the role of emotions in the family and how cultural or ethnic background may influence those beliefs. Based on philosophical traditions and previous research, three dimensions of parental beliefs were predicted: Value of Emotion, Socialization of Emotion, and Controllability of Emotion. We expected new themes to emerge during the focus groups.Twelve focus groups were conducted with 87 parents from the three cultural groups mentioned above. Groups met for two sessions scheduled 2 weeks apart. Focus group discussions were led by same-ethnicity moderators. Aninductive analysis was conducted; key themes and subthemes were identified.All three theoretically derived dimensions were well represented in each focus group. Cultural similarities in themes within these dimensions included children’s appropriate expression of negative emotions, role of emotion in the home, children’s capacity for controlling emotions, and parents’ role in socialization of emotion. Cultural variations included concern about parents’ expression of negative emotion, children’s modulation of positive emotion, the role emotions play in behavior, and choice in emotional experience. Two new dimensions also emerged: Relational Nature of Emotions and Changeability of Emotions. Cultural similarities in themes within these dimensions included emphasis on emotional connections with children, emotional contagion in families, developmental change in children’s emotions, and intergenerational change in emotion socialization. Cultural variation included discussion of emotions as guides for action and children’s emotional privacy. Dimensions and the themes and subthemes within them are presented with supporting evidence and sources. Implications of parental beliefs for emotion socialization theory and future research, as well as limitations, are discussed.

Sex Roles and Nonverbal Communication Skills.

As a step toward understanding sex differences in nonverbal decoding and encoding abilities, the hypothesis that sex-role variables are related to these communication abilities was tested. An analysis was undertaken of 11 studies on the relationship of encoding and decoding abilities to sex roles, including several masculinity and femininity scales, a measure of attitudes toward women, and a questionnaire on sex roles in the home. Although the relationships of the masculinity and femininity measures to decoding were generally weak, more “masculine” people tended to be better decoders. Patterns also emerged showing that the magnitude of the correlations varied with age group, sex, sex-role scale, and channel of communication. In addition, among women, those who were more “liberated” according to several indices were better decoders, at least of a woman stimulus person. Differences between the sexes in encoding and decoding abilities were unaffected by partialling out the masculinity and femininity measures. A hypothesis concerning the adaptive uses of nonverbal sensitivity is advanced, as well as a hypothesis concerning overall sex differences in nonverbal communication skills.

“Subordination” and sensitivity to nonverbal cues: A study of married working women

Womens superiority in decoding nonverbal cues of emotion has often been discussed as an adaptation to low status. To examine the relation of status to nonverbal sensitivity, “subordination” in 83 female employees of a large university was defined in terms of marriage traditionality, gender-role values, salary rank, and self-reported subordination at work. Sensitivity to nonverbal cues was measured using voice tone clips from the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity (PONS). Measures of subordination as defined by marriage and gender-role values showed that less subordinate women were better decoders of a female encoder than were more subordinate women. These measures were not significantly related to success in decoding a male encoder. The hypothesis that women in lower ranked jobs would have greater ability to decode nonverbal affect cues was significantly disconfirmed for one subscale of the PONS and received no support for the other subscales and total score. Among higherranked women only, subjective feelings of subordination on the job had a linear relation to one PONS subscore, such that better decoders felt more subordinate; there were also quadratic trends for other subscores showing that both the least and most subordinate-feeling were the most accurate decoders. Limitations and future directions for the subordination hypothesis are discussed in light of these findings.

Parent Gender Differences in Emotion Socialization Behaviors Vary by Ethnicity and Child Gender

SYNOPSIS Objective. This study examined ethnicity (African American, European American, and Lumbee American Indian) and child gender as moderators of gender differences in parents’ emotion socialization behaviors. Design. Mothers and fathers from two samples responded to questionnaires assessing self-expressiveness in the family (N = 196) or reactions to children’s negative emotions (N = 299). Results. Differences between mothers and fathers varied as a function of ethnicity. Mothers and fathers showed similar levels of negative expressiveness in European American and African American families, whereas fathers were more negatively expressive than mothers in Lumbee families. Mothers reported more supportive reactions than fathers among European Americans and Lumbees, but African American mothers and fathers reported nearly equal levels of supportive reactions. Parent gender × ethnicity interactions were further moderated by child gender. Mothers were generally more supportive of girls’ negative emotions than fathers across all ethnicities. For boys, however, parent gender differences in supportive reactions to negative emotions varied by ethnicity. Mothers were more supportive than fathers among European American parents of boys, but mothers were less supportive than fathers among African American parents of boys. Conclusions. Results highlight the contextualized nature of emotion socialization, and the need to consider ethnicity and child gender as influences on mothers’ and fathers’ gender-specific emotion socialization.

EUReKA! A Conceptual Model of Emotion Understanding.

The field of emotion understanding is replete with measures, yet lacks an integrated conceptual organizing structure. To identify and organize skills associated with the recognition and knowledge of emotions, and to highlight the focus of emotion understanding as localized in the self, in specific others, and in generalized others, we introduce the conceptual framework of Emotion Understanding in Recognition and Knowledge Abilities (EUReKA). We then categorize 56 existing methods of emotion understanding within this framework to highlight current gaps and future opportunities in assessing emotion understanding across the lifespan. We hope the EUReKA model provides a systematic and integrated framework for conceptualizing and measuring emotion understanding for future research.