Amy J. Cairns

Porous materials with optimal adsorption thermodynamics and kinetics for CO2 separation

The energy costs associated with the separation and purification of industrial commodities, such as gases, fine chemicals and fresh water, currently represent around 15 per cent of global energy production, and the demand for such commodities is projected to triple by 2050 (ref. 1). The challenge of developing effective separation and purification technologies that have much smaller energy footprints is greater for carbon dioxide (CO2) than for other gases; in addition to its involvement in climate change, CO2 is an impurity in natural gas, biogas (natural gas produced from biomass), syngas (CO/H2, the main source of hydrogen in refineries) and many other gas streams. In the context of porous crystalline materials that can exploit both equilibrium and kinetic selectivity, size selectivity and targeted molecular recognition are attractive characteristics for CO2 separation and capture, as exemplified by zeolites 5A and 13X (ref. 2), as well as metal–organic materials (MOMs). Here we report that a crystal engineering or reticular chemistry strategy that controls pore functionality and size in a series of MOMs with coordinately saturated metal centres and periodically arrayed hexafluorosilicate (SiF62−) anions enables a ‘sweet spot’ of kinetics and thermodynamics that offers high volumetric uptake at low CO2 partial pressure (less than 0.15 bar). Most importantly, such MOMs offer an unprecedented CO2 sorption selectivity over N2, H2 and CH4, even in the presence of moisture. These MOMs are therefore relevant to CO2 separation in the context of post-combustion (flue gas, CO2/N2), pre-combustion (shifted synthesis gas stream, CO2/H2) and natural gas upgrading (natural gas clean-up, CO2/CH4).

Tunable Rare-Earth fcu-MOFs: A Platform for Systematic Enhancement of CO2 Adsorption Energetics and Uptake

A series of fcu-MOFs based on rare-earth (RE) metals and linear fluorinated/nonfluorinated, homo/heterofunctional ligands were targeted and synthesized. This particular fcu-MOF platform was selected because of its unique structural characteristics combined with the ability/potential to dictate and regulate its chemical properties (e.g., tuning of the electron-rich RE metal ions and high localized charge density, a property arising from the proximal positioning of polarizing tetrazolate moieties and fluoro-groups that decorate the exposed inner surfaces of the confined conical cavities). These features permitted a systematic gas sorption study to evaluate/elucidate the effects of distinctive parameters on CO2-MOF sorption energetics. Our study supports the importance of the synergistic effect of exposed open metal sites and proximal highly localized charge density toward materials with enhanced CO2 sorption energetics.

Supermolecular building blocks (SBBs) and crystal design: 12-connected open frameworks based on a molecular cubohemioctahedron.

The cubohemioctahedral supermolecular building blocks, SBBs, of formula [M6(bdc)12]12- (M = Ni, Co) (as illustrated) have the requisite symmetry to be cross-linked by rigid tetracarboxylato ligands in such a manner that 12-connected fcu nets with nanoscale features are generated. 3,5-H4ATC, L1, facilitates a structure with Ni that exhibits cavities with >2 nm maximum dimensions, whereas H4BIPA-TC, L2, forms a net with Co or Ni that exhibits cavities with >3 nm maximum dimensions.

Made-to-order metal-organic frameworks for trace carbon dioxide removal and air capture

Direct air capture is regarded as a plausible alternate approach that, if economically practical, can mitigate the increasing carbon dioxide emissions associated with two of the main carbon polluting sources, namely stationary power plants and transportation. Here we show that metal-organic framework crystal chemistry permits the construction of an isostructural metal-organic framework (SIFSIX-3-Cu) based on pyrazine/copper(II) two-dimensional periodic 44 square grids pillared by silicon hexafluoride anions and thus allows further contraction of the pore system to 3.5 versus 3.84 Å for the parent zinc(II) derivative. This enhances the adsorption energetics and subsequently displays carbon dioxide uptake and selectivity at very low partial pressures relevant to air capture and trace carbon dioxide removal. The resultant SIFSIX-3-Cu exhibits uniformly distributed adsorption energetics and offers enhanced carbon dioxide physical adsorption properties, uptake and selectivity in highly diluted gas streams, a performance, to the best of our knowledge, unachievable with other classes of porous materials.

Discovery and introduction of a (3,18)-connected net as an ideal blueprint for the design of metal–organic frameworks

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are a promising class of porous materials because it is possible to mutually control their porous structure, composition and functionality. However, it is still a challenge to predict the network topology of such framework materials prior to their synthesis. Here we use a new rare earth (RE) nonanuclear carboxylate-based cluster as an 18-connected molecular building block to form a gea-MOF (gea-MOF-1) based on a (3,18)-connected net. We then utilized this gea net as a blueprint to design and assemble another MOF (gea-MOF-2). In gea-MOF-2, the 18-connected RE clusters are replaced by metal–organic polyhedra, peripherally functionalized so as to have the same connectivity as the RE clusters. These metal–organic polyhedra act as supermolecular building blocks when they form gea-MOF-2. The discovery of a (3,18)-connected MOF followed by deliberate transposition of its topology to a predesigned second MOF with a different chemical system validates the prospective rational design of MOFs. It is often difficult to predict or control the topologies of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) before synthesis. Now, the topology of a MOF has been used as an ideal blueprint for the deliberate design of a related MOF, by substitution of molecular building blocks with supermolecular building blocks. The two MOFs share the same underlying topology but have different chemical compositions.

Zeolite-like metal-organic frameworks (ZMOFs) based on the directed assembly of finite metal-organic cubes (MOCs).

Two zeolite-like metal-organic frameworks (ZMOFs) with lta- and ast- topologies, zeolitic nets that can be interpreted as augmented edge-transitive 8-connected nets, are targeted through directed self-assembly of metal-organic cubes (MOCs) as supermolecular building blocks (SBBs).

Tunable Rare Earth fcu-MOF Platform: Access to Adsorption Kinetics Driven Gas/Vapor Separations via Pore Size Contraction

Reticular chemistry approach was successfully employed to deliberately construct new rare-earth (RE, i.e., Eu(3+), Tb(3+), and Y(3+)) fcu metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) with restricted window apertures. Controlled and selective access to the resultant contracted fcu-MOF pores permits the achievement of the requisite sorbate cutoff, ideal for selective adsorption kinetics based separation and/or molecular sieving of gases and vapors. Predetermined reaction conditions that permitted the formation in situ of the 12-connected RE hexanuclear molecular building block (MBB) and the establishment of the first RE-fcu-MOF platform, especially in the presence of 2-fluorobenzoic acid (2-FBA) as a modulator and a structure directing agent, were used to synthesize isostructural RE-1,4-NDC-fcu-MOFs based on a relatively bulkier 2-connected bridging ligand, namely 1,4-naphthalenedicarboxylate (1,4-NDC). The subsequent RE-1,4-NDC-fcu-MOF structural features, contracted windows/pores and high concentration of open metal sites combined with exceptional hydrothermal and chemical stabilities, yielded notable gas/solvent separation properties, driven mostly by adsorption kinetics as exemplified in this work for n-butane/methane, butanol/methanol, and butanol/water pair systems.

On Demand: The Singular rht Net, an Ideal Blueprint for the Construction of a Metal–Organic Framework (MOF) Platform†

The need for tunable functional solid-state materials is ever increasing because of the growing demand to address persisting challenges in global energy issues, environmental sustainability, and others. [1] It is practical and preferable for such materials to be pre-designed and constructed to contain the desired properties and specific functionalities for a given targeted application. An emerging unique class of solid-state materials, namely metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), has the desired attributes and offers great promise to unveil superior materials for many lasting challenges [2] since desired functionality can be introduced pre- and/or post-synthesis. [3] A remarkable feature of MOFs is the ability to build periodic structures with in-built functional properties using the molecular building block (MBB) approach, which utilizes pre-selected organic and inorganic MBBs, with desired function, that are judiciously chosen to possess the proper geometry, shape, and directionality required to target given underlying nets. [4]

Highly Monodisperse MIII-Based soc-MOFs (M = In and Ga) with Cubic and Truncated Cubic Morphologies

In this work, we carry out an investigation on shape-controlled growth of In(III)- and Ga(III)-based square-octahedral metal-organic frameworks (soc-MOFs). In particular, controllable crystal morphological evolution from simple cubes to complex octadecahedra has been achieved, and resultant highly uniform crystal building blocks promise new research opportunities for preparation of self-assembled MOF materials and related applications.

The Quest for Modular Nanocages: tbo-MOF as an Archetype for Mutual Substitution, Functionalization, and Expansion of Quadrangular Pillar Building Blocks

A new blueprint network for the design and synthesis of porous, functional 3D metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) has been identified, namely, the tbo net. Accordingly, tbo-MOFs based on this unique (3,4)-connected net can be exclusively constructed utilizing a combination of well-known and readily targeted [M(R-BDC)](n) MOF layers [i.e., supermolecular building layers (SBLs)] based on the edge-transitive 4,4 square lattice (sql) (i.e., 2D four-building units) and a novel pillaring strategy based on four proximal isophthalate ligands from neighboring SBL membered rings (i.e., two pairs from each layer) covalently cross-linked through an organic quadrangular core (e.g., tetrasubstituted benzene). Our strategy permits the rational design and synthesis of isoreticular structures, functionalized and/or expanded, that possess extra-large nanocapsule-like cages, high porosity, and potential for gas separation and storage, among others. Thus, tbo-MOF serves as an archetypal tunable, isoreticular MOF platform for targeting desired applications.