Amy N. Spiegel

Museum Visitors' Understanding of Evolution

Abstract In spite of overwhelming scientific evidence supporting evolution, a large percentage of the American public does not understand or accept the fundamental principles of evolutionary theory. Museums have an important role in educating children and adults about evolution. This paper reviews recent museum visitor studies, which suggest that while visitors are interested in learning about and less likely to reject evolution than the general public, they tend to have a limited understanding of evolutionary concepts. A new conceptual framework, based on developmental research, indicates that visitors reason about evolution differently depending on the type of organism they are considering, applying evolutionary principles to some species-change scenarios, but not others. The use of a conceptual framework that builds on previous visitor research may lead to a deeper understanding of how visitors reason about evolution and how museums may use this understanding to improve the effectiveness of their exhibits.

Changing Museum Visitors’ Conceptions of Evolution

We examined whether a single visit to an evolution exhibition contributed to conceptual change in adult (n = 30), youth, and child (n = 34) museum visitors’ reasoning about evolution. The exhibition included seven current research projects in evolutionary science, each focused on a different organism. To frame this study, we integrated a developmental model of visitors’ understanding of evolution, which incorporates visitors’ intuitive beliefs, with a model of free-choice learning that includes personal, sociocultural, and contextual variables. Using pre- and post-measures, we assessed how visitors’ causal explanations about biological change, drawn from three reasoning patterns (evolutionary, intuitive, and creationist), were modified as a result of visiting the exhibition. Whatever their age, background beliefs, or prior intuitive reasoning patterns, visitors significantly increased their use of explanations from the evolutionary reasoning pattern across all measures and extended this reasoning across diverse organisms. Visitors also increased their use of one intuitive reasoning pattern, need-based (goal-directed) explanations, which, we argue, may be a step toward evolutionary reasoning. Nonetheless, visitors continued to use mixed reasoning (endorsing all three reasoning patterns) in explaining biological change. The personal, socio-cultural, and contextual variables were found to be related to these reasoning patterns in predictable ways. These findings are used to examine the structure of visitors’ reasoning patterns and those aspects of the exhibition that may have contributed to the gains in museum visitors’ understanding of evolution.

Using Teacher Reflective Practice to Evaluate Professional Development in Mathematics and Science

Systemic reform has been a key element of the mathematics and science educational agenda for the past decade. Systemic reform proponents advocate emphasizing mathematics and science from kindergarten through 12th grade; adopting new math and science education standards; providing ongoing professional development for teachers (Frechtling, Sharp, Carey, & Vaden-Kiernan, 1995); and aligning policy, practice, and assessment procedures. The National Science Foundation (NSF) has supported the development of systemic reform by funding statewide, urban, and rural systemic initiatives to improve K-12 mathematics and science education throughout the United States (Fitzsimmons & Kerpelman, 1994). In the past decade, professional development has evolved in content, delivery, and style. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) standards and the National Science Education standards clearly define a new direction for effective mathematics and science instruction. The standards incorporate constructivist teaching and learning techniques reflecting changes in learning theory and focusing on student-centered learning and real-life applications of concepts. These standards promote instructional approaches that prepare students to take more active roles in their learning and work independently and collaboratively. The goal is for students to construct more powerful and flexible knowledge and understanding. To use these approaches, teachers must think in ways substantially different from how many of them were taught about students, subject matter, and the teaching and learning process (Borko & Putnam, 1995). Effective professional development can provide teachers with the means to engage in exploration, research-based inquiry, reflection, experimentation, and practice, while providing collegial sharing of knowledge and opportunities to draw on the expertise of others in the community. Abdal-Haqq (1996) and Joyce and Showers (1982) have identified several factors essential in delivering effective professional development programs: providing training, practice, and feedback; providing opportunity for reflection; allowing opportunity for group sharing and inquiry; focusing on student learning and assessment practices; incorporating constructivist approaches to teaching and learning; recognizing teachers as professionals; and providing adequate time and follow-up support. Most of these elements were in the professional development workshops that were the subject of our evaluation. Professional Development Workshops The Nebraska Math and Science Initiative (NMSI) was one of the initial group of 11 statewide systemic initiatives NSF funded to develop projects leading to systemic change in mathematics and science education. One primary strategy of NMSI was the PEERS (Promoting Educational Excellence Regionally and Statewide) Academy--a series of 2-week professional development workshops to increase teacher understanding of mathematical and scientific processes, improve teaching methods in math and science, and create a supportive network for systemic change in the state. Nebraska classroom teachers who had earlier participated in two 5week residential summer NMSI Institutes conducted the PEERS workshops. These workshop leaders, called Lead Teachers, were role models and advocates for change in math and science education by working with participating K-12 teachers to incorporate more constructivist, standards-based, and inclusive teaching practices in their classrooms. Conducted in grade-related groupings (e.g., K-3, 4-6, etc.) the PEERS workshops modeled best practices in K-12 teaching and included many key components of standards-based practices. Workshops were comparable in their goals across the different grade levels, but individual Lead Teachers tailored activities and lessons within workshops. Districts were required to commit funds for their teachers, ensuring that administrators were supportive and knowledgeable about the professional development efforts. …

Expert-Novice Differences in Mental Models of Viruses, Vaccines, and the Causes of Infectious Disease

Humans are exposed to viruses everywhere they live, play, and work. Yet people’s beliefs about viruses may be confused or inaccurate, potentially impairing their understanding of scientific information. This study used semi-structured interviews to examine people’s beliefs about viruses, vaccines, and the causes of infectious disease. We compared people at different levels of science expertise: middle school students, teachers, and professional virologists. The virologists described more entities involved in microbiological processes, how these entities behaved, and why. Quantitative and qualitative analyses revealed distinctions in the cognitive organization of several concepts, including infection and vaccination. For example, some students and teachers described viral replication in terms of cell division, independent of a host. Interestingly, most students held a mental model for vaccination in which the vaccine directly attacks a virus that is present in the body. Our findings have immediate implications for how to communicate about infectious disease to young people.

Science Possible Selves and the Desire to be a Scientist: Mindsets, Gender Bias, and Confidence during Early Adolescence

In the United States, gender gaps in science interest widen during the middle school years. Recent research on adults shows that gender gaps in some academic fields are associated with mindsets about ability and gender-science biases. In a sample of 529 students in a U.S. middle school, we assess how explicit boy-science bias, science confidence, science possible self (belief in being able to become a scientist), and desire to be a scientist vary by gender. Guided by theories and prior research, we use a series of multivariate logistic regression models to examine the relationships between mindsets about ability and these variables. We control for self-reported science grades, social capital, and race/ethnic minority status. Results show that seeing academic ability as innate (“fixed mindsets”) is associated with boy-science bias, and that younger girls have less boy-science bias than older girls. Fixed mindsets and boy-science bias are both negatively associated with a science possible self; science confidence is positively associated with a science possible self. In the final model, high science confident and having a science possible self are positively associated with a desire to be a scientist. Facilitating growth mindsets and countering boy-science bias in middle school may be fruitful interventions for widening participation in science careers.

VIRUS AND THE WHALE: EXPLORING EVOLUTION IN AMUSEUM COLLABORATION

A major new collaboration of museums in the U.S. will teach the public about current research in evolutionary biology. This project, entitled Explore Evolution, combines the strength of interactive exhibits, Web activities and outreach programs for youth to feature seven influential research projects on organisms ranging in size from the smallest, Hiy to the largest, a whale. Launched in 2003 and funded by the Informal Science Education Program of the National Science Foundation (NSF), Explore Evolution is one of the most comprehensive informal education projects in the U.S. to focus on teaching about evolution research. The concept of biological evolution is one of the most important ideas ever generated by the application of scientific methods to the natural world. (Bruce Alperts qtd. in National Academy of Sciences 1999)

The Potential Scientist’s Dilemma: How the Masculine Framing of Science Shapes Friendships and Science Job Aspirations

In the United States, girls and boys have similar science achievement, yet fewer girls aspire to science careers than boys. This paradox emerges in middle school, when peers begin to play a stronger role in shaping adolescent identities. We use complete network data from a single middle school and theories of gender, identity, and social distance to explore how friendship patterns might influence this gender and science paradox. Three patterns highlight the social dimensions of gendered science persistence: (1) boys and girls do not differ in self-perceived science potential and science career aspirations; (2) consistent with gender-based norms, both middle school boys and girls report that the majority of their female friends are not science kinds of people; and (3) youth with gender-inconsistent science aspirations are more likely to be friends with each other than youth with gender normative science aspirations. Together, this evidence suggests that friendship dynamics contribute to gendered patterns in science career aspirations.

Viruses, vaccines and the public

Abstract Current research in virology is changing public conceptions about vaccines and infectious disease. The University of Nebraska State Museum collaborated with research virologists, science writers, artists and learning researchers to create public outreach materials about viruses and infectious disease. The project, funded by the National Institute of Healths SEPA program, developed comics, a book with Carl Zimmer, and other materials and programs. The project launched three kinds of learning research: 1) a survey of Nebraska adults on their opinions about vaccines and infectious disease; 2) a study comparing the mental models of viruses, vaccines, and infection from virologists, teachers, and students; and 3) a controlled study of 873 high school students randomly assigned to read either a comic or a text-based essay with the same virus information.

Discovery Orientation, Cognitive Schemas, and Disparities in Science Identity in Early Adolescence

Why are some youth more likely to think of themselves as a science kind of person than others? In this paper, we use a cognitive social-theoretical framework to assess disparities in science identity among middle school–age youth in the United States. We investigate how discovery orientation is associated with science interest, perceived ability, importance, and reflected appraisal, and how they are related to whether youth see themselves, and perceive that others see them, as a science kind of person. We surveyed 441 students in an ethnically diverse, low-income middle school. Gender and race/ethnicity are associated with science identity but not with discovery orientation. Structural equation model results show that the positive association between discovery orientation and science identity is mediated by science interest, importance, and reflected appraisal. These findings advance understanding of how science attitudes and recognition may contribute to the underrepresentation of girls and/or minorities in science.