Amy S. Ha

Inclusion in Physical Education: A review of literature

The purpose of this review was to analyse empirical studies on inclusion in physical education (PE) over the past 20 years and then propose recommendations for future research. A systematic process was used to search the literature for this review. First, a total of 75 research-based articles from computerised education databases were included in this review. Second, the publication descriptor data were summarised and analysed according to the geographic distribution, study period, research theme, and research method. Results showed that the number of studies on inclusive PE increased in the past 20 years, and most of these studies were contributed by authors in developed countries. Quantitative methods were the major research method employed in the reviewed studies. Third, we performed a content analysis on the descriptive data and identified three recurring themes from the empirical research. These included: stakeholder (e.g., teachers and parents) perspectives of inclusive PE, effective inclusive practices, and the impacts of inclusion on students with and without disabilities. Of the 75 studies reviewed, 49 (65%) focused on stakeholder perspectives on inclusive PE. The data indicated that stakeholders philosophically support inclusive PE, but numerous concerns and different opinions exist. Only 12 (16%) studies examined the effects of different inclusive strategies. The studies suggested that strategies such as peer tutoring and cooperative learning can provide useful support within inclusive PE. A total of 14 (19%) studies focused on the effect of inclusion on students with and without disabilities. The data indicated that inclusion in PE does not affect the learning outcome of students without disabilities when given support (e.g., using paraprofessionals and adapted PE specialists) or when a solid curriculum is used. However, students with disabilities experienced less motor engagement than their peers without disabilities. The findings of these studies also indicated that although students with disabilities can gain benefits from social interactions in inclusive PE, social isolation of students with disabilities also exists. In conclusion, this review has enhanced our knowledge of the type of studies undertaken in the field of inclusive PE for students with disabilities and some of the outcomes for these students.

Understanding teachers’ will and capacity to accomplish physical education curriculum reform: the implications for teacher development

The purpose of this study is to examine the receptivity of physical education teachers to curriculum reform and their capacity to accomplish the proposed changes. A sample of 145 secondary physical educators with different years of teaching experience was recruited to participate in this study on a voluntary basis. Using both quantitative and qualitative methods, teachers’ responses were surveyed using a questionnaire derived from the teachers’ receptivity to curriculum change (Waugh & Godfrey, 1993; Ha et al., 2004). Descriptive statistics and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to analyze the surveyed data. Subsequently, using Fullans comprehensive framework for teacher development, a group of 20 teachers was interviewed regarding their views and concerns on the recent reforms in their profession. The results indicate that experienced teachers show statistically significant positive attitudes toward the proposed guidelines (p<0.05) and statistically significant less concern on different issues (p<0.01) as compared to their novice counterparts. In terms of the professional need for reform, the teachers, regardless of their teaching experience, identified ‘pedagogical skills for different types of students,’ ‘teaching of generic skills’ and ‘student assessment’ as the areas which need to be reviewed. Meanwhile, novice teachers consistently require strong leadership and support within and outside the school to promote ‘collegiality’ and ‘knowledge of educational contexts.’ Experienced teachers are particularly concerned about ‘continuous learning’ and ‘change process,’ which could be attributed to their traditional background and less opportunity for professional development. Ultimately, experienced teachers show a stronger commitment to their career, while novice teachers feel insecure about implementing their professional role under the uncertainties of the reform. It is suggested that a teacher development program be purposefully and systematically designed for teachers of different career stages, and more importantly, that their needs be communicated to the government and the public so as to achieve the best outcome out of professional and educational changes.

Pre-service teachers’ perception of Teaching Games for Understanding: A Hong Kong perspective

This study aims to examine pre-service physical education (PE) teachers’ perception of Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) in Hong Kong. Adopting a qualitative approach, 20 pre-service PE teachers (F = 8, M = 12) were recruited for individual semi-structured interviews. Most pre-service teachers responded that TGfU is beneficial for students because of its tendency to enhance students’ engagement, stimulate their thinking and include students with varying skill levels. However, difficulties in understanding the nature and implementation of TGfU have been encountered. The results indicate that the majority of pre-service teachers are likely to use TGfU in the future, while a handful of them prefer to implement the skill-based approach during teaching practice due to a lack of support from cooperative teachers and a short period of teaching practice. Suggestions for improving the TGfU professional development programme and collaboration between pre- and in-service teachers are provided. Perception des enseignants stagiaires de la méthode d’enseignement des jeux comme vecteur de compréhension : étude de cas à Hong Kong Cette étude se propose d’analyser la perception des enseignants d’éducation physique (EP) stagiaires de Hong Kong à propos de la méthode d’enseignement des jeux comme vecteur de compréhension (Teaching Games for Understanding ; TGfU). En adoptant une approche qualitative, 20 enseignants stagiaires d’EP (F = 8, M = 12) ont été recrutés pour répondre à des interviews semi-structurées. La plupart des enseignants stagiaires ont rapporté que la méthode TGfU est bénéfique pour les élèves car elle tend à augmenter leur engagement, à stimuler leur réflexion et est adaptée pour des élèves possédant des niveaux d’habileté motrice variés. Cependant, des difficultés dans la compréhension de la nature et des procédés de mises en œuvre de la méthode TGfU ont été rencontrées. Les résultats indiquent que la majorité des enseignants stagiaires projettent d’utiliser la méthode TGfU à l’avenir, bien qu’une poignée d’entre eux préfèrent utiliser dans leurs cours l’approche par l’apprentissage des habiletés techniques considérant ne pas être suffisamment soutenus par leurs tuteurs et ne pas bénéficier d’assez de temps d’enseignement pour pouvoir mettre en place la méthode TGfU. Des suggestions visant à augmenter le développement de la méthode TGfU et les collaborations entre enseignants stagiaires et tuteurs sont proposées. La percepción de los profesores en preservicio respecto a la enseñanza a través de juegos cognitivos: una perspectiva desde Hong-Kong Este estudio pretende examinar la percepción de los profesores de Educación Física (PE) respecto a la Enseñanza a través de Juegos Cognitivos (TGfU) en Hong Kong. A través de una aproximación cualitativa, se solicitó a 20 profesores en ‘pre servicio’ (Mujeres = 8, Hombres = 12) para realizar entrevistas individuales semi-estructuradas. La mayoría de los profesores en ‘pre servicio’ respondieron que los TGfU son beneficiosos a causa de su tendencia a aumentar el compromiso de los alumnos, los estimulan para pensar y permiten la inclusión de alumnos con niveles de habilidad variables. No obstante, se encontraron dificultades para comprender la naturaleza de los TGfU y desarrollarlos. Los resultados indicaban que la mayoría de los profesores en ‘pre servicio’ están dispuestos a utilizar los TGfU en el futuro, mientras que otros prefiere utilizar en sus prácticas una aproximación basada en la tarea, debido a la falta de apoyo de profesores colaboradores y a un corto tiempo de práctica docente. Se realizaron sugerencias para mejorar el desarrollo profesional del programa de los TGfU, así como la colaboración entre docentes en prácticas y docentes en servicio Die Wahrnehmung der Methode ’Teaching Games for Understandig’ durch Lehramts-Anwärter/innen: eine Studie in Hong Kong Diese Studie untersucht die Wahrnehmung der Methode ’Teaching Games for Understandig’ (TGfU) von Sport-Lehramts-Studierenden in Hong Kong. In einem qualitativen Zugang wurden 20 angehende Sportlehrer/innen (F = 8; M = 12) für halbstrukturierte Einzel-Interviews gewonnen. Die meisten Lehramts-Anwärter/innen bewerteten die TGfUMethode als gewinnbringend für Schüler/innen, da sie tendenziell das Eigenengagement fördert, das Mitdenken stimuliert und zudem Schüler/innen mit unterschiedlichen Fertigkeitsstufen integrieren kann. Andererseits wurden auch Schwierigkeiten im Verständnis der Ziele und der Umsetzung von TGfU benannt. Die Ergebnisse deuten an, dass die Mehrheit der angehenden Lehrer/innen TGfU in der Zukunft anwenden möchte, während einige die Einführung von fertigkeits-orientier*ten Zugängen in der Lehrpraxis bevorzugen, da zu wenig Unterstützung von kooperativen Lehrer/innen antizipiert wird und die Unterrichtszeit zu kurz erscheint. Es werden Verbesserungsvorschläge zur professionellen Weiterentwicklung des TGfU-Programmes zur sowie zur Zusammenarbeit von zukünftigen und gegenwärtigen Lehrerinnen und Lehrern gemacht.

Mentoring in TGfU Teaching: Mutual Engagement of Pre-Service Teachers, Cooperating Teachers and University Supervisors.

This study aims to examine the approaches used in mentoring and investigate the interactions occurring between pre-service teachers and mentors during the mentoring process. The study is placed in the context of the implementation of Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU). The theoretical framework of this study was based on situated learning theory. Written artefacts and interview transcripts were collected from ten pre-service teachers, nine cooperating teachers and three university supervisors. Findings indicate that although a hierarchy mentoring model is adopted by mentors to supervise the teaching of pre-service teachers, interactions occur between pre-service teachers and mentors during the mentoring process in TGfU teaching. According to the perspective of pre-service teachers, university supervisors assisted them in acquiring a better understanding and facilitating the teaching of TGfU, although some suggestions are idealistic. The mentoring from cooperating teachers did not focus on TGfU teaching due to their limited knowledge of the subject. From the perspective of mentors, the mentoring in TGfU teaching resulted in their own professional growth. Based on the findings, we suggest that situated learning theory and the mentoring model be modified and developed further.

Factors influencing pre-service teachers' perception of teaching games for understanding: a constructivist perspective

This study aims to examine the factors influencing pre-service Physical Education (PE) teachers’ perception of a specific constructivist approach — Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) in Hong Kong. By adopting a qualitative approach, 20 pre-service PE teachers were recruited for individual semi-structured interviews. Deductive data analysis was utilised to identify unique themes with broad aspects of influencing factors. Using Piagets cognitive constructivism and Vygotskys social constructivism as the theoretical frameworks, individual factors such as game knowledge, teacher beliefs, learning and teaching experience and social factors including government policy, teacher support and professional culture were identified as key influences in pre-service teachers’ perception of TGfU. Furthermore, individual and social factors interplay with each other. In conclusion, cognitive and social constructivism was identified as a useful theoretical framework for illustrating and analysing the factors influencing pre-service teachers’ perception of TGfU.

Comparison of Perceived Support for Physical Activity and Physical Activity Related Practices of Children and Young Adolescents in Hong Kong and Australia.

This study compared the self-reported physical activity, perceived social support for, and perceived barriers to, physical activity of primary and secondary school children from Hong Kong and Australia. Hong Kong boys and girls reported spending significantly less time, outside of school hours, on physical activity than their Australian contemporaries (p < .05). There was significantly higher perceived support for activity from Australian parents (p < .001), teachers (p < .001) and peers (p < .001) compared to their Hong Kong counterparts. Parental support significantly correlated with self-reported activity in Australia, but not in Hong Kong. These data add support to the notion that strategies to increase physical activity need to embed family and school.

Raising activity levels: a multidimensional analysis of curriculum change.

Using Fullans (1982) The Meaning of Educational Change (Toronto, OISE Press) multidimensional framework, this paper discusses the problems of curriculum change by examining the subjective experiences of physical education teachers. The discussion was based on interviews with teachers who were involved in a study to change health behaviors of high school students. Although no discernable changes in behavior were observed, the explanations for the results, as reported by the teachers, have provided insights of greater importance. Two physical education classes consisting of boys and girls aged between 11 and 13 years from 20 secondary schools were selected for pre-test and post-test measurements. The data collected included a survey, direct observation, heart rate monitoring and motion sensoring. A teacher-designed modification of the physical education curriculum was used as an intervention as it was specifically aimed at increasing activity. A debriefing of teachers in the experimental group indicated that they considered the teacher-designed lesson guide to be valuable. However, when the teachers were faced with implementing change in their physical classes, they (like the researchers) underestimated the situational and personal-social factors that prevented untested ideas from being transformed into firm beliefs and values. The findings confirmed the predictions of a multidimensional model of educational change, which indicated that, when challenged, technological and material innovations are more easily changed than attitudes, beliefs and values held by teachers.

Changes in Track and Field Performance with Chronological Aging.

Use of existing records to study performance decline with age has been recommended by several writers. This investigation attempts to identify one running, jumping, and throwing event whose performance was most affected by age. Results indicated that the 400 meter run and the long jump events were most affected by advancing age among both male and female master athletes whereas in the area of throws, the event most affected was the javelin for men and the discus for women.

Subjective Task Value in Physical Activity Participation: The Perspective of Hong Kong Schoolchildren.

Subjective Task Value (STV) is a multidimensional construct of values predominantly used to examine western culture (Eccles et al., 1983); it is influential in motivating individuals to make choices and display long-lasting behaviours. While existing studies were conducted with western populations, the manifestation of value has yet to be investigated from the viewpoint of the Chinese culture. This study sought, first, to test the validity of the construct with schoolchildren in the Hong Kong cultural context; second, to investigate gender differences in children’s STV and physical activity participation, and last, to examine relationships between the STV components and physical activity participation. Questionnaires were completed by 172 boys and 163 girls (mean age = 10.71) in assessing their STV in physical activity, and participation in physical activity. Significant findings were as follows. (1) Confirmatory factor analysis provided initial support to the multidimensional construct of STV (intrinsic, attainment and utility value) as construed by Eccles et al. (1983). (2) The three value constructs significantly correlated with the children’s physical activity participation. (3) Boys and girls differed in their intrinsic value and utility value but not attainment value. (4) Utility value had the greatest effect in predicting boys’ and girls’ physical activity participation. These results supported the validity of the STV model with Hong Kong Chinese schoolchildren and provided empirical evidence that there is a need to embed cultural and gender strategies in order to further promote Hong Kong children’s participation in physical activity.

Fundamental movement skills proficiency in children with developmental coordination disorder: does physical self-concept matter?

Abstract Purpose: The purpose of this study was to (1) examine differences in fundamental movement skills (FMS) proficiency, physical self-concept, and physical activity in children with and without developmental coordination disorder (DCD), and (2) determine the association of FMS proficiency with physical self-concept while considering key confounding factors. Method: Participants included 43 children with DCD and 87 age-matched typically developing (TD) children. FMS proficiency was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development – second edition. Physical self-concept and physical activity were assessed using self-report questionnaires. A two-way (group by gender) ANCOVA was used to determine whether between-group differences existed in FMS proficiency, physical self-concept, and physical activity after controlling for age and BMI. Partial correlations and hierarchical multiple regression models were used to examine the relationship between FMS proficiency and physical self-concept. Results: Compared with their TD peers, children with DCD displayed less proficiency in various components of FMS and viewed themselves as being less competent in physical coordination, sporting ability, and physical health. Physical coordination was a significant predictor of ability in object control skills. DCD status and gender were significant predictors of FMS proficiency. Conclusions: Future FMS interventions should target children with DCD and girls, and should emphasize improving object control skills proficiency and physical coordination. Implications for Rehabilitation Children with DCD tend to have not only lower FMS proficiency than age-matched typically developing children but also lower physical self-concept. Self-perceptions of physical coordination by children with DCD are likely to be valuable contributors to development of object control skills. This may then help to develop their confidence in performing motor skills. Children with DCD need supportive programs that facilitate the development of object control skills. Efficacy of training programs may be improved if children experience a greater sense of control and success when performing object control skills.