Ana Barahona

A Strategy for Origins of Life Research

Contents 1. Introduction 1.1. A workshop and this document 1.2. Framing origins of life science 1.2.1. What do we mean by the origins of life (OoL)? 1.2.2. Defining life 1.2.3. How should we characterize approaches to OoL science? 1.2.4. One path to life or many? 2. A Strategy for Origins of Life Research 2.1. Outcomes—key questions and investigations 2.1.1. Domain 1: Theory 2.1.2. Domain 2: Practice 2.1.3. Domain 3: Process 2.1.4. Domain 4: Future studies 2.2. EON Roadmap 2.3. Relationship to NASA Astrobiology Roadmap and Strategy documents and the European AstRoMap  Appendix I  Appendix II  Supplementary Materials  References

Why Are Some Evolutionary Trees in Natural History Museums Prone to Being Misinterpreted

Today, the picture of an evolutionary tree is a very well-known visual image. It is almost impossible to think of the ancestry and relationships of living beings without it. As natural history museums play a major role in the public understanding of evolution, they often present a wide variety of evolutionary trees. However, many studies have shown (Baum and Offner 2008; Baum et al. 2005; Catley and Novick 2008; Evans 2009; Gregory 2008; Matuk 2007; Meir et al. 2007b; Padian 2008) that even though evolutionary trees have the potential to engage visitors of natural history museums with the phenomena of evolution, many of them unwittingly might lead to misunderstandings about the process. As valuable research and educational institutions, one of the museum’s important missions should be the careful design of their exhibits on evolution considering, for example, common preconceptions visitors often bring, such as the notion that evolution is oriented from simple toward complex organisms (incarnating the idea of a single ladder of life amidst the extraordinary diversity of organisms) and that humans are at the pinnacle of the evolutionary story, as well as naïve interpretations of phylogenies. Our aim in this article is to show from history where many of these misunderstandings come from and to determine whether five important Western natural history museums inadvertently present “problematic” evolutionary trees (which might lead to non-scientific notions).

The Institutionalization of Biology in Mexico in the Early 20th Century. The Conflict between Alfonso Luis Herrera (1868–1942) and Isaac Ochoterena (1885–1950)

The aim of this work is to evaluate the roleplayed by Alfonso Luis Herrera and IsaacOchoterena in the institutionalization ofacademic biology in Mexico in the early 20thcentury. As biology became institutionalized inMexico, Herreras basic approach to biology wasdisplaced by Isaac Ochoterenas professionalgoals due to the prevailing politicalconditions at the end of 1929. Theconflict arose from two different conceptionsof biology, because Herrera and Ochoterena haddifferent discourses that were incommensurable,not only linguistically speaking, but alsosocioprofessionally. They had different linksto influential groups related to education,having distinct political and socioprofessionalinterests. The conflict between Herrreraand Ochoterena determined the way in whichprofessional biology education has developed inMexico, as well as the advancement in specificresearch subjects and the neglect of others.

Transnational science and collaborative networks: the case of Genetics and Radiobiology in Mexico, 1950-1970

The transnational approach of the science and technology studies (S&TS) abandons the nation as a unit of analysis in order to understand the development of science history. It also abandons Euro-US-centred narratives in order to explain the role of international collaborative networks and the circulation of knowledge, people, artefacts and scientific practices. It is precisely under this perspective that the development of genetics and radiobiology in Mexico shall be analyzed, together with the pioneering work of the Mexican physician-turned-geneticist Alfonso León de Garay who spent two years in the Galton Laboratory in London under the supervision of Lionel Penrose. Upon his return de Garay funded the Genetics and Radiobiology Program of the National Commission of Nuclear Energy based on local needs and the aim of working beyond geographical limitations to thus facilitate the circulation of knowledge, practices and people. The three main lines of research conducted in the years after its foundation that were in line with international projects while responding to the national context were, first, cytogenetic studies of certain abnormalities, and the cytogenetics and anthropological studies of the Olympic Games held in Mexico in 1968; second, the study of the effects of radiation on hereditary material; and third, the study of population genetics in Drosophila and in Mexican indigenous groups. The program played a key role in reshaping the scientific careers of Mexican geneticists, and in transferring locally sourced research into broader networks. This case shows the importance of international collaborative networks and circulation in the constitution of national scientific elites, and also shows the national and transnational concerns that shaped local practices.

Medical Genetics and the First Studies of the Genetics of Populations in Mexico.

Following World War II (WWII), there was a new emphasis within genetics on studying the genetic composition of populations. This probably had a dual source in the growing strength of evolutionary biology and the new international interest in understanding the effects of radiation on human populations, following the atomic bombings in Japan. These global concerns were shared by Mexican physicians. Indeed, Mexico was one of the leading centers of this trend in human genetics. Three leading players in this story were Mario Salazar Mallén, Adolfo Karl, and Rubén Lisker. Their trajectories and the international networks in human genetics that were established after WWII, paved the way for the establishment of medical and population genetics in Mexico. Salazar Mallén’s studies on the distribution and characterization of ABO blood groups in indigenous populations were the starting point while Karl’s studies on the distribution of abnormal hemoglobin in Mexican indigenous populations showed the relationships observed in other laboratories at the time. It was Lisker’s studies, however, that were instrumental in the development of population genetics in the context of national public policies for extending health care services to the Mexican population. In particular, he conducted studies on Mexican indigenous groups contributing to the knowledge of the biological diversity of human populations according to international trends that focused on the variability of human populations in terms of genetic frequencies. From the start, however, Lisker was as committed to the reconstruction of shared languages and practices as he was to building networks of collaboration in order to guarantee the necessary groundwork for establishing the study of the genetics of human populations in Mexico. This study also allows us to place Mexican science within a global context in which connected narratives describe the interplay between global trends and national contexts.

The emergence and development of genetics in Mexico.

Early in the twentieth century it was shown that Mendels laws apply to plants and animals and that genes reside on chromosomes. In the 1950s the double-helix model of DNA inaugurated the molecular biology era, which culminated at the end of the century with the publication of the human genome sequence. Although the early response to discoveries in genetics was slow in Mexico, the Green Revolution and other agricultural applications of genetic knowledge contributed greatly to economic welfare, and by the end of the millennium Mexican genetics had reached world-class status at several universities and research institutions.

Across borders: science and technology during the Cold War: an introduction

During the last decades we have witnessed an explosion of historical research on science during the Cold War period 1. The availability of archival and other historical resources, and the recognition that the social history of this period cannot be written without acknowledging the contribution of science and technology, are some of the reasons behind the accumulation of historical research on this period. Moreover, salient features of contemporary science, including the primacy of governmental over private financing of scientific research, have their roots not only in the post war configuration of science, but in Cold War anxieties that defined research priorities between the late 1940s and the 1980s. National security concerns, and its correlate, international collaboration, are also part of what today define the practice of science around the globe. International and bi-national agencies were created in this period and played a crucial role in the internationalization and standardization of science.

The History and Philosophy of Science and Their Relationship to the Teaching of Sciences in Mexico

Science is one of the main attributes of the contemporary world and, more than any other human activity, characterizes the current period from previous centuries. Great advances in the field of science and technology deeply influence natural and social processes. There has been a worldwide recognition of the role of science in modern societies, along with an urgent need to move towards more and better scientific education, particularly in developing countries. It becomes fundamental to modify the current education system regarding science and technology in countries like Mexico, where a cornerstone has been the inclusion of the reflections that historical and philosophical studies have produced in the last three decades.

Karyotyping and the Emergence of Genetic Counselling in Mexico in the 1960s

In the aftermath of World War II (WWII), there was growing interest for international peace that gave rise to international cooperation programmes and organizations that produced important changes in the international political landscape. It was in those years, when global trends in human genetics were reshaping the field of biomedicine and when growing international interest in understanding the effects of radiation on human beings led to the formation of institutions and a proliferation of multi-centred clinical trials and inter-laboratory studies. In Mexico, the first studies on chromosomes were performed by Mexican paediatrician-turned-geneticist Salvador Armendares and his colleagues at the Mexican Institute of Social Security (IMSS) in the 1960s. Their work was based on the study on congenital malformations performed by the WHO that Mexico had participated in which was carried out by Alan C. Stevenson, one of the earliest medical geneticists in the UK. Armendares spent 2 years at the British Medical Research Council in Oxford in 1964 and 1965 under Stevenson’s supervision. Upon Armendares’ return from England in 1966, the first Unit for Research in Human Genetics was created at the IMSS. The Unit was created with the main objective of providing medical genetic services in a clinical setting. Armendares and the colleagues who soon joined the Unit were aware of the growing importance of chromosome studies in clinical practice, particularly concerning genetic counselling for certain diseases. Human geneticists at the Unit developed precise diagnostic protocols to provide accurate genetic information to the patients for the development of future treatments and prophylaxis (preventive medicine). In his 1968 book, Citogenetica Humana (Human Cytogenetics), Armendares included a chapter on genetic counselling as being the most important practical application of human genetics knowledge. Armendares was the first to relate karyotyping with genetic counselling, translating test results and technical language for the patients or their parents at the hospital. He played a key role in educating physicians (creating the syllabus in medical genetics at the National University of Mexico) and the patients about the role of genetics in rare diseases such as Down and Turner syndromes. Armendares and his colleagues envisioned clinical work, medical research and educational programmes as endeavours that were needed urgently in clinical practice. This story is one of overlapping trajectories that involved institutions, physicians, practices and ideas that began to reshape human genetics that made the development of genetic counselling possible in Mexico in the 1960s.