Ana Isabel Moreno-Calles

Plant Management in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Valley, Mexico1

Plant Management in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Valley, Mexico. Plant management types currently practiced in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Valley, México, were documented and analyzed based on ethnobotanical studies conducted in 13 villages with six indigenous groups and Mestizo people. The information was organized in a data base, and then detailed and guided to a consensus through six workshops carried out by ethnobotanists working in the area. From a total of 1,608 useful plant species, we identified 610 with at least one management type other than simple gathering. Managed species are mainly used as food, fodder, medicinal, and ornamental, and they belong to 101 plant families. The higher species numbers were recorded in Cactaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Crassulaceae, and Agavaceae. Nearly 60% of the managed species are native to the region and the rest are introduced from other regions of Mexico and the world. In total, 400 species are ex situ managed out of their natural environments through seed sowing and/or planting their vegetative propagules or entire young plants; 373 species are in situ managed in their natural habitats as follows: all these species are deliberately left standing during vegetation clearance, 76 species are also enhanced intentionally favoring their abundance through modifications of their habitat, or directly by planting their propagules, and 51 receive protection through regulations, particular strategies of extraction, and actions against herbivores, competitors, freezing, radiation, and drought. Most management forms involve artificial selection at different intensity levels. The information allows visualizing co-occurrence of incipient and advanced forms of management at different intensity levels within and among species, which helps to postulate testable hypotheses on factors influencing plant management and domestication in an important area for studying the origins of agriculture.Manejo de plantas en el Valle de Tehuacán-Cuicatlán, México. Se documentaron los diferentes tipos de manejo de plantas que practican actualmente los pobladores del Valle de Tehuacán-Cuicatlán, México. El análisis se basa en estudios etnobotánicos llevados a cabo en 13 comunidades campesinas con seis grupos indígenas y poblados mestizos. La información se organizó en una base de datos, la cual posteriormente se detalló y se consensó a través de seis talleres en los que participaron los etnobotánicos trabajando en la región y cuyos trabajos son la base de esta investigación. De un total de 1,608 especies de plantas útiles, identificamos 610 con al menos un tipo de manejo distinto a la recolección simple. Las especies manejadas pertenecen a 101 familias botánicas y se utilizan principalmente como alimento, forraje, medicina y ornamentales. Los mayores números de especies manejadas se registraron entre las Cactaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Crassulaceae y Agavaceae. Aproximadamente 60% de las especies manejadas son nativas de la región y el resto son introducidas de otras regiones de México y del mundo. En total, 400 especies se manejan ex situ, fuera de sus ambientes naturales, mediante la siembra de sus semillas y la plantación de sus propágulos vegetativos o plantas juveniles; 373 especies se manejan in situ en sus hábitats naturales como sigue: todas estas especies se dejan en pie deliberadamente durante el aclareo de la vegetación; 76 especies son además promovidas intencionalmente, favoreciendo sus abundancias mediante modificaciones a sus hábitats o directamente plantando sus propágulos; y 51 especies reciben protección a través de reglas comunitarias, estrategias particulares de extracción y acciones contra herbívoros, competidores, heladas, radiación solar y sequías. La mayor parte de las formas de manejo involucran selección artificial a diferentes niveles de intensidad. La información permite visualizar la ocurrencia de formas de manejo incipientes y avanzadas a diferentes niveles de intensidad, simultáneamente dentro de una misma especie y entre especies. Esto permite postular hipótesis probables sobre los factores que influyen el manejo de plantas y su domesticación en una región importante para el estudio sobre el origen de la agricultura.

Traditional agroforestry systems of multi-crop “milpa” and “chichipera” cactus forest in the arid Tehuacán Valley, Mexico: their management and role in people’s subsistence

Agroforestry systems (AFS) derived from the cactus forest “chichipera” and cultivated with “milpa”, the traditional multi-crop system of maize-beans-squash were studied in the Tehuacán Valley, Mexico. Plant management types practiced by people, role of agricultural and forest resources in households’ subsistence, and consequences of changes in AFS were investigated through ethnobotanical, ecological, and economic approaches. People maintain in this AFS 122 plant species that provide useful products for 14 different purposes. Nearly 90% of useful plants are native to the region, representing 54% of all plant species recorded in the chichipera forest. Management strategies were identified occurring on 63 species at landscape, parcel, and individual plant levels. About 67% of managed plant species are left standing during clearance of vegetation; 35% are transplanted to the parcels’ surrounding area, 32% receive particular protection, and 10 species from other areas are cultivated inside the fields. During years of higher rainfall (~745xa0mm) AFS supply nearly 75% of the maize grain and 50% of the maize straw used as fodder by households. AFS with intermediate vegetation cover have higher economic value than monocultures and forest. However, plots with low forest cover and monocultures are progressively more common as consequence of socio-cultural processes. Local traditional ecological knowledge and management techniques are crucial for managing resilience of these AFS.

Agroforestry systems and biodiversity conservation in arid zones: the case of the Tehuacan Valley, Central Mexico

The role of agroforestry systems in biodiversity conservation was investigated in the semiarid Tehuacán Valley, Central México. Richness and diversity of native plant species were compared between agroforestry systems (6 sampling sites) and the following forests (6 sampling sites) dominated by columnar cacti: (i) “chichipera” dominated by Polaskia chichipe; (ii) “jiotillal” dominated by Escontria chiotilla; and (iii) “garambullal” dominated by Myrtillocactus schenckii. Our information on genetic variation of dominant arboreal species in the study sites was reviewed and included in the analysis. Factors influencing household’s decisions to maintain vegetation cover were compiled through a survey and interviews and analyzed. All the samples of the agroforestry systems studied maintained on average nearly 59% plant species and 94% genetic variation of dominant cacti occurring in the forests, although their ability to preserve endemic rare species is limited. Social factors favoring maintenance of perennial species in agricultural plots include collective rules, households traditions, use of the plants maintained in the systems, and the environmental information gathered from NGOs, the local Biosphere Reserve, and researchers. However, agroforestry systems are losing their capability to maintain vegetation cover, mainly because of (i) decreasing amount of land managed by households, determined by a progressive fragmentation of the land area given to new families, (ii) adoption of technologies to intensify agriculture, and (iii) governmental programs penalizing the presence of vegetation patches within agricultural lands since they are considered “useless” areas. Necessary policies to stop degradation of the agroforestry systems and to improve their conservation capacity are discussed.

Plant management and biodiversity conservation in Náhuatl homegardens of the Tehuacán Valley, Mexico.

BackgroundThe Tehuacán Valley is one of the areas of Mesoamerica with the oldest history of plant management. Homegardens are among the most ancient management systems that currently provide economic benefits to people and are reservoirs of native biodiversity. Previous studies estimated that 30% of the plant richness of homegardens of the region are native plant species from wild populations. We studied in Náhuatl communities the proportion of native plant species maintained in homegardens, hypothesizing to find a proportion similar to that estimated at regional level, mainly plant resources maintained for edible, medicinal and ornamental purposes.MethodsWe analysed the composition of plant species of homegardens and their similarity with surrounding Cloud Forest (CF), Tropical Rainforest (TRF), Tropical Dry forest (TDF), and Thorn-Scrub Forest (TSF). We determined density, frequency and biomass of plant species composing homegardens and forests through vegetation sampling of a total of 30 homegardens and nine plots of forests, and documented ethnobotanical information on use, management, and economic benefits from plants maintained in homegardens.ResultsA total of 281 plant species was recorded with 12 use categories, 115 ornamental, 92 edible, and 50 medicinal plant species. We recorded 49.8 ± 23.2 (average ± S.D.) woody plant species (shrubs and trees) per homegarden. In total, 34% species are native to the Tehuacán Valley and nearly 16% are components of the surrounding forests. A total of 176 species were cultivated through seeds, vegetative propagules or transplanted entire individual plants, 71 tolerated, and 23 enhanced. The highest species richness and diversity were recorded in homegardens from the CF zone (199 species), followed by those from the TRF (157) and those from the TDF (141) zones.ConclusionHomegardens provide a high diversity of resources for subsistence of local households and significantly contribute to conservation of native biodiversity. The highest diversity was recorded in homegardens where the neighbouring forests had the least diversity, suggesting that management of homegardens aims at compensating scarcity of naturally available plant resources. Cultivated species were markedly more abundant than plants under other management forms. Diversity harboured and management techniques make homegardens keystones in strategies for regional biodiversity conservation.

Agroforestry systems in the highlands of the Tehuacán Valley, Mexico: indigenous cultures and biodiversity conservation

AbstractIn this study we analysed: (1) the biodiversity conservation capacity of Agroforestry Systems (AFS) in temperate highlands of then Tehuacán–Cuicatlán Valley, Central Mexico, (2) human cultural motives and actions for conserving such diversity and (3) problems endangering that capacity. We evaluated the richness and diversity of perennial plant species maintained in AFS through vegetation sampling of 14 agricultural plots and compared their composition with that of natural forests (14 plots of 500xa0m2 each). We examined the situations among communities of Náhuatl, Ixcatec and Cuicatec people, documenting through interviews the management practices of plant species and the whole system, reasons why people maintain vegetation cover within AFS, and factors influencing changes in decisions favouring agriculture intensification. In the AFS studied we recorded a total of 79 species of trees and shrubs, 86xa0% of them being native species and representing 43xa0% of all species of trees and shrubs recorded in the sampling of the natural forests the AFS derive from. People leave standing on average a total of 40 individual trees and shrubs per agricultural plot. Reasons for leave plant species standing were more frequently associated with their use as fruit trees, firewood, shade, beauty, respect to nature and other environmental benefits. Water availability for irrigation, land tenure, and dependence on agriculture and forest for peasants subsistence were main decision factors influencing AFS variation in their composition. AFS in temperate zones are important reservoirs of biodiversity and biocultural heritage and should be keystones for conservation policies in the Tehuacán–Cuicatlán Valley.n

Agroforestry systems of the lowland alluvial valleys of the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve: an evaluation of their biocultural capacity

BackgroundAgroforestry systems (AFS) are valuable production systems that allow concealing benefits provision with conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services. We analysed AFS of the zone of alluvial valleys of the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Valley (TCV), Mexico, the most intensive agricultural systems within a region recognized for harbouring one of the most ancient agricultural experience of the New World. We hypothesized that the biodiversity conservation capacity of AFS would be directly related to traditional agricultural features and inversely related to management intensity.MethodsAgricultural practices, use frequency of machinery and chemical inputs, and proportion of forest and cultivated areas were described in 15 AFS plots in alluvial valleys of the Salado River in three villages of the region. With the information, we constructed a management intensity index and compared among plots and villages. We documented the reasons why people maintain wild plant species and traditional practices. Perennial plant species were sampled in vegetation of AFS (15 plots) and unmanaged forests (12 plots 500xa0m2) in order to compare richness, diversity and other ecological indicators in AFS and forest.ResultsIn all studied sites, people combine traditional and intensive agricultural practices. Main agroforestry practices are ground terraces and borders surrounding AFS plots where people maintain vegetation. According to people, the reasons for maintaining shrubs and trees in AFS were in order of importance are: Beauty and shade provision (14% of people), fruit provision (7%), protection against strong wind, and favouring water and soil retention. We recorded 66 species of trees and shrubs in the AFS studied, 81% of them being native species that represent 38% of the perennial plant species recorded in forests sampled. Land tenure and institutions vary among sites but not influenced the actions for maintaining the vegetation cover in AFS. Plant diversity decreased with increasing agricultural intensity.ConclusionsMaintenance of vegetation cover did not confront markedly with the intensive agricultural practices. It is possible the expansion and enrichment of vegetation in terraces and borders of AFS. Information available on plant species and local techniques is potentially useful for a regional program of biodiversity conservation considering AFS as keystones.

Agroforestry Systems: Restoration of Semiarid Zones in the Tehuacán Valley, Central Mexico

Abstract We reviewed ecological and ethnobotanical information on forests and agroforestry systems of the Tehuacán Valley, central Mexico, to analyze the usefulness of traditional management techniques for ecological restoration of semiarid zones of Mexico. Agroforestry systems of the region involve the use of multiple plant resources by local people, promoting conservation of biological diversity in agricultural systems. We found that these systems retain 57% of the species of columnar cacti communities and nearly 94% of the dominant columnar cacti’s genetic variation. Other species include shrubs and trees with cultural and economic value that are also recognized by ecologists as nurse plants crucial for seedling recruitment of numerous native plant species. Retention of native elements of vegetation in general, and nurse plants in particular, favors conservation of biodiversity and biotic interactions important for restoring vegetation and soil fertility in both natural and transformed ecosystems at the landscape level. Resumen Se revisó información ecológica y etnobotánica sobre bosques y sistemas agroforestales del Valle de Tehuacán, en el centro de México, con el fin de analizar la utilidad de las técnicas de manejo tradicional para la restauración de zonas semiáridas de México. Los sistemas agroforestales de la región involucran el uso de múltiples recursos vegetales por la gente del área, promoviendo la conservación de la diversidad biológica en los sistemas agrícolas. Estimamos que estos sistemas mantienen en promedio 57% de las especies presentes en las comunidades de cactáceas columnares, y cerca del 94% de la diversidad genética de las especies de cactáceas columnares dominantes. Entre las especies mantenidas en estos sistemas se incluyen algunas especies de árboles y arbustos de valor cultural y económico, los cuales son además reconocidos por ecólogos como plantas nodrizas cruciales para el reclutamiento de plántulas de numerosas especies de plantas nativas. El mantenimiento de elementos nativos de la vegetación en general y de plantas nodrizas en particular favorece la conservación de la biodiversidad y de interacciones bióticas importantes para la restauración de la vegetación y de la fertilidad del suelo tanto en ecosistemas naturales como transformados a nivel de paisaje.

TEK and biodiversity management in agroforestry systems of different socio-ecological contexts of the Tehuacán Valley

Transformation of natural ecosystems into intensive agriculture is a main factor causing biodiversity loss worldwide. Agroforestry systems (AFS) may maintain biodiversity, ecosystem benefits and human wellbeing, they have therefore high potential for concealing production and conservation. However, promotion of intensive agriculture and disparagement of TEK endanger their permanence. A high diversity of AFS still exist in the world and their potentialities vary with the socio-ecological contexts. We analysed AFS in tropical, temperate, and arid environments, of the Tehuacan Valley, Mexico, to investigate how their capacity varies to conserve biodiversity and role of TEK influencing differences in those contexts. We hypothesized that biodiversity in AFS is related to that of forests types associated and the vigour of TEK and management. We conducted studies in a matrix of environments and human cultures in the Tehuacán Valley. In addition, we reviewed, systematized and compared information from other regions of Mexico and the world with comparable socio-ecological contexts in order to explore possible general patterns. Our study found from 26xa0% to nearly 90xa0% of wild plants species richness conserved in AFS, the decreasing proportion mainly associated to pressures for intensifying agricultural production and abandoning traditional techniques. Native species richness preserved in AFS is influenced by richness existing in the associated forests, but the main driver is how people preserve benefits of components and functions of ecosystems. Elements of modern agricultural production may coexist with traditional management patterns, but imposition of modern models may break possible balances. TEK influences decisions on what and how modern techniques may be advantageous for preserving biodiversity, ecosystem integrity in AFS and people’s wellbeing. TEK, agroecology and other sciences may interact for maintaining and improving traditional AFS to increase biodiversity and ecosystem integrity while improving quality of life of people managing the AFS.

Ethnobotany for Sustainable Ecosystem Management: A Regional Perspective in the Tehuacán Valley

Different indicators of global change identify that industrial processes are principal causes of the severe human impact on ecosystems of Earth. However, although industrial processes predominate in the world, numerous rural societies with a different rationality and organization coexist with the hegemonic mode of production. In indigenous communities the traditional botanical, zoological and ecological knowledge as well as traditional technologies of local resources and ecosystem management are particularly rich, as product of hundreds or thousands of years of experience. Indigenous communities have historically built diverse forms of managing the socioecological systems and the biocultural diversity adapted to local conditions, which are generally much more environmental friendly than other intensive forms of management. In this study we document the management of plant resources by peoples of the Tehuacan Valley, Mexico. We have inventoried more than 1600 plant species used for satisfying a broad spectrum of needs. People gather nearly 90 % of those species from wild populations, but practice different forms of incipient management (tolerance, enhancing, transplantation and seed sowing) in order to increase availability of nearly 400 important plant resources. The indigenous communities may adopt some modern techniques of managing resources and ecosystems, and select those according with their conditions and views. Based on these processes people construct hybrid techniques that may be adapted to the local environments. Agroecologists and ethnobotanists have visualized the high value of traditional management systems for generating technological viable alternatives for designing forms of sustainable management adapted to satisfy local needs and conserving biodiversity and ecosystems, and the continuous innovation tested by local people. It has been recognized that, in general, the traditional management systems have higher capacity for conserving biodiversity and ensuring the resilience of socioecological systems than industrial systems and that both traditional and modern techniques may contribute to better forms of management, but the form that the process adopts is crucial. Understanding traditional management systems are therefore the opportunity to reproduce valuable experiences, models and lessons for sustainable management and participatory adoption of new techniques may help to solve problems not traditionally solved. This chapter shows a general panorama of ethnobotanical information about resources and local traditional management strategies among Nahua, Mixtec, Mazatec, Cuicatec, Popoloca, Ixcatec and Mestizo peoples of the Tehuacan Valley, in order to analyse their role in designing a future for the region based on sustainability, an experience that may be useful for this and other regions of Mexico.

Traditional climate knowledge: a case study in a peasant community of Tlaxcala, Mexico

BackgroundTraditional climate knowledge is a comprehensive system of insights, experiences and practices used by peasant communities to deal with the uncertainties of climate conditions affecting their livelihood. This knowledge is today as relevant in the Mesoamerican and Andean regions as it is in Europe and Asia. Our research sought to analyze the traditional knowledge about the weather and climate in a rural village of the state of Tlaxcala, Mexico, and its importance in decision-making in agriculture.MethodsThrough 30 interviews and participant observation in the community during 2013, information was gathered about traditional climate and weather indicators and prediction tools, as well as rituals and agronomic and agroforestry strategies. This information allowed for the reconstruction of the community’s agro-festive calendar. Data analysis was carried out with the help of the qualitative analysis software Atlas.ti (version 7).ResultsThe socio-ecological importance of traditional knowledge about the climate lies in its ability to forecast local weather conditions and recognize climate variations, so vital to the food security of rural families. Knowledge about climate predictors is exchanged and passed on from generation to generation, contributing to the preservation and promotion of biodiversity. By observing the behavior of 16 animals and 12 plant species (both domestic and wild) as well as seven astronomical indicators, villagers are able to predict rain, dry weather and frosts. However, the continuity of this traditional knowledge in the community under study is now compromised by the little interest in agriculture characteristic of the younger generations, the ensuing abandonment of the countryside, the widespread economic crisis and the disappearance of animal and plant species.ConclusionsTraditional climate knowledge includes the understanding of weather events and weather changes at different time scales (hours, days, weeks, and seasons). The ability to interpret weather events thanks to the accumulated knowledge about the climate through generations may prove today a relevant tool for improving agricultural practices and dealing with local and global socio-ecological changes.