Ana Paula C. A. Lima

Blood-brain barrier traversal by African trypanosomes requires calcium signaling induced by parasite cysteine protease

In this study we investigated why bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense cross human brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs), a human blood-brain barrier (BBB) model system, at much greater efficiency than do T. b. brucei. After noting that T. b. gambiense displayed higher levels of cathepsin L-like cysteine proteases, we investigated whether these enzymes contribute to parasite crossing. First, we found that T. b. gambiense crossing of human BMECs was abrogated by N-methylpiperazine-urea-Phe-homopheylalanine-vinylsulfone-benzene (K11777), an irreversible inhibitor of cathepsin L-like cysteine proteases. Affinity labeling and immunochemical studies characterized brucipain as the K11777-sensitive cysteine protease expressed at higher levels by T. b. gambiense. K11777-treated T. b. gambiense failed to elicit calcium fluxes in BMECs, suggesting that generation of activation signals for the BBB is critically dependant on brucipain activity. Strikingly, crossing of T. b. brucei across the BBB was enhanced upon incubation with brucipain-rich supernatants derived from T. b. gambiense. The effects of the conditioned medium, which correlated with ability to evoke calcium fluxes, were canceled by K11777, but not by the cathepsin B inhibitor CA074. Collectively, these in vitro studies implicate brucipain as a critical driver of T. b. gambiense transendothelial migration of the human BBB.

Kininogenase Activity by the Major Cysteinyl Proteinase (Cruzipain) from Trypanosoma cruzi

The major isoform of Trypanosoma cruzi cysteinyl proteinase (cruzipain) has generated Lys-bradykinin (Lys-BK or kallidin), a proinflammatory peptide, by proteolysis of kininogen. The releasing of this peptide was demonstrated by mass spectrometry, radioimmunoassay, and ileum contractile responses. The kinin-releasing activity was immunoabsorbed selectively by monoclonal antibodies to the characteristic COOH-terminal domain of cruzipain. To determine the hydrolysis steps that account for the kininogenase activity of cruzipain, we synthesized a fluorogenic peptide (o-aminobenzoyl-Leu-Gly-Met-Ile-Ser-Leu-Met-Lys-Arg-Pro-Pro-Gly-Phe-Ser-Pro-Phe-Arg389-Ser390-Ser-Arg-Ile-NH2) based on the sequence Leu373 to Ile393 of the human high molecular weight kininogen. The hydrolysis products from this peptide were isolated by high performance liquid chromatography, and Lys-BK was characterized as the major released kinin by mass spectrometry. Intramolecularly quenched fluorogenic peptides spanning the Met379-Lys380 and Arg389-Ser390 bradykinin-flanking sequences were then used to assess the substrate specificity requirements of the parasite-derived protease compared with two COOH-terminal truncated recombinant isoforms (cruzain and cruzipain 2). In contrast to the high catalytic efficiency of parasite-derived cruzipain, the recombinant proteinases cleaved the bradykinin-flanking sites at markedly different rates. In addition, we also demonstrated that cruzipain activates plasmatic prekallikrein, which would be a second and indirect way of the parasite protease to release bradykinin.

Chagasin, the endogenous cysteine-protease inhibitor of Trypanosoma cruzi, modulates parasite differentiation and invasion of mammalian cells

Chagasin is a Trypanosoma cruzi protein that was recently characterized as a tight-binding inhibitor of papain-like cysteine proteases (CPs). Considering that parasite virulence and morphogenesis depend on the endogenous activity of lysosomal CPs of the cruzipain family, we sought to determine whether chagasin and cruzipain interact in the living cell. Ultrastructural studies showed that chagasin and cruzipain both localize to the Golgi complex and reservosomes (lysosome-like organelles), whereas free chagasin was found in small intracellular vesicles, suggesting that chagasin trafficking pathways might intersect with those of cruzipain. Taking advantage of the fact that sodium dodecyl sulphate and β-mercaptoethanol prevent binding between the isolated proteins but do not dismantle preformed cruzipain-chagasin complexes, we obtained direct evidence that chagasin-cruzipain complexes are indeed formed in epimastigotes. Chagasin transfectants (fourfold increase in CP inhibitory activity) displayed low rates of differentiation (metacyclogenesis) and exhibited increased resistance to a synthetic CP inhibitor. These phenotypic changes were accompanied by a drastic reduction of soluble cruzipain activity and by upregulated secretion of cruzipain-chagasin molecular complexes. Analysis of six T. cruzi strains revealed that expression levels of cruzipain and chagasin are variable, but the molar ratios are fairly stable (∼50:1) in most strains, with the exception of the G strain (5:1), which is poorly infective. On the same vein, we found that trypomastigotes overexpressing chagasin are less infective than wild-type parasites in vitro. The deficiency of chagasin overexpressers is caused by lower activity of membrane-associated CPs, because membranes recovered from wild-type trypomastigotes restored infectivity and this effect was nullified by the CP inhibitor E-64. In summary, our studies suggest that chagasin regulates the endogenous activity of CP, thus indirectly modulating proteolytic functions that are essential for parasite differentiation and invasion of mammalian cells.

Cooperative Activation of TLR2 and Bradykinin B2 Receptor Is Required for Induction of Type 1 Immunity in a Mouse Model of Subcutaneous Infection by Trypanosoma cruzi

We have previously reported that exogenous bradykinin activates immature dendritic cells (DCs) via the bradykinin B2 receptor (B2R), thereby stimulating adaptive immunity. In this study, we show that these premises are met in a model of s.c. infection by Trypanosoma cruzi, a protozoan that liberates kinins from kininogens through its major protease, cruzipain. Intensity of B2R-dependent paw edema evoked by trypomastigotes correlated with levels of IL-12 produced by CD11c+ dendritic cells isolated from draining lymph nodes. The IL-12 response induced by endogenously released kinins was vigorously increased in infected mice pretreated with inhibitors of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), a kinin-degrading metallopeptidase. Furthermore, these innate stimulatory effects were linked to B2R-dependent up-regulation of IFN-γ production by Ag-specific T cells. Strikingly, the trypomastigotes failed to up-regulate type 1 immunity in TLR2−/− mice, irrespective of ACE inhibitor treatment. Analysis of the dynamics of inflammation revealed that TLR2 triggering by glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored mucins induces plasma extravasation, thereby favoring peripheral accumulation of kininogens in sites of infection. Further downstream, the parasites generate high levels of innate kinin signals in peripheral tissues through the activity of cruzipain. The demonstration that the deficient type 1 immune responses of TLR2−/− mice are rescued upon s.c. injection of exogenous kininogens, along with trypomastigotes, supports the notion that generation of kinin “danger” signals is intensified through cooperative activation of TLR2 and B2R. In summary, we have described a s.c. infection model where type 1 immunity is vigorously up-regulated by bradykinin, an innate signal whose levels in peripheral tissues are controlled by an intricate interplay of TLR2, B2R, and ACE.

Toll-like receptors in leishmania infections: guardians or promoters?

Protozoa of the genus Leishmania cause a wide variety of pathologies ranging from self-healing skin lesions to visceral damage, depending on the parasite species. The outcome of infection depends on the quality of the adaptive immune response, which is determined by parasite factors and the host genetic background. Innate responses, resulting in the generation of mediators with anti-leishmanial activity, contribute to parasite control and help the development of efficient adaptive responses. Among those, the potential contribution of members of the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) family in the control of Leishmania infections started to be investigated about a decade ago. Although most studies appoint a protective role for TLRs, there is growing evidence that in some cases, TLRs facilitate infection. This review highlights recent advances in TLR function during Leishmania infections and discusses their potential role in restraining parasite growth versus yielding disease.

Protease Activated Receptor Signaling Is Required for African Trypanosome Traversal of Human Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells

Background Using human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs) as an in vitro model for how African trypanosomes cross the human blood-brain barrier (BBB) we recently reported that the parasites cross the BBB by generating calcium activation signals in HBMECs through the activity of parasite cysteine proteases, particularly cathepsin L (brucipain). In the current study, we examined the possible role of a class of protease stimulated HBMEC G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) known as protease activated receptors (PARs) that might be implicated in calcium signaling by African trypanosomes. Methodology/Principal Findings Using RNA interference (RNAi) we found that in vitro PAR-2 gene (F2RL1) expression in HBMEC monolayers could be reduced by over 95%. We also found that the ability of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense to cross F2RL1-silenced HBMEC monolayers was reduced (39%–49%) and that HBMECs silenced for F2RL1 maintained control levels of barrier function in the presence of the parasite. Consistent with the role of PAR-2, we found that HBMEC barrier function was also maintained after blockade of Gαq with Pasteurella multocida toxin (PMT). PAR-2 signaling has been shown in other systems to have neuroinflammatory and neuroprotective roles and our data implicate a role for proteases (i.e. brucipain) and PAR-2 in African trypanosome/HBMEC interactions. Using gene-profiling methods to interrogate candidate HBMEC pathways specifically triggered by brucipain, several pathways that potentially link some pathophysiologic processes associated with CNS HAT were identified. Conclusions/Significance Together, the data support a role, in part, for GPCRs as molecular targets for parasite proteases that lead to the activation of Gαq-mediated calcium signaling. The consequence of these events is predicted to be increased permeability of the BBB to parasite transmigration and the initiation of neuroinflammation, events precursory to CNS disease.

Trypanosoma cruzi invades host cells through the activation of endothelin and bradykinin receptors: a converging pathway leading to chagasic vasculopathy

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Independent studies in experimental models of Trypanosoma cruzi appointed different roles for endothelin‐1 (ET‐1) and bradykinin (BK) in the immunopathogenesis of Chagas disease. Here, we addressed the hypothesis that pathogenic outcome is influenced by functional interplay between endothelin receptors (ETAR and ETBR) and bradykinin B2 receptors (B2R).

Influence of parasite encoded inhibitors of serine peptidases in early infection of macrophages with Leishmania major

Ecotin is a potent inhibitor of family S1A serine peptidases, enzymes lacking in the protozoan parasite Leishmania major. Nevertheless, L. major has three ecotin‐like genes, termed inhibitor of serine peptidase (ISP). ISP1 is expressed in vector‐borne procyclic and metacyclic promastigotes, whereas ISP2 is also expressed in the mammalian amastigote stage. Recombinant ISP2 inhibited neutrophil elastase, trypsin and chymotrypsin with Kis between 7.7 and 83 nM. L. major ISP2–ISP3 double null mutants (Δisp2/3) were created. These grew normally as promastigotes, but were internalized by macrophages more efficiently than wild‐type parasites due to the upregulation of phagocytosis by a mechanism dependent on serine peptidase activity. Δisp2/3 promastigotes transformed to amastigotes, but failed to divide for 48 h. Intracellular multiplication of Δisp2/3 was similar to wild‐type parasites when serine peptidase inhibitors were present, suggesting that defective intracellular growth results from the lack of serine peptidase inhibition during promastigote uptake. Δisp2/3 mutants were more infective than wild‐type parasites to BALB/c mice at the early stages of infection, but became equivalent as the infection progressed. These data support the hypothesis that ISPs of L. major target host serine peptidases and influence the early stages of infection of the mammalian host.

Leishmania Inhibitor of Serine Peptidase 2 Prevents TLR4 Activation by Neutrophil Elastase Promoting Parasite Survival in Murine Macrophages

Leishmania major is a protozoan parasite that causes skin ulcerations in cutaneous leishmaniasis. In the mammalian host, the parasite resides in professional phagocytes and has evolved to avoid killing by macrophages. We identified L. major genes encoding inhibitors of serine peptidases (ISPs), which are orthologs of bacterial ecotins, and found that ISP2 inhibits trypsin-fold S1A family peptidases. In this study, we show that L. major mutants deficient in ISP2 and ISP3 (Δisp2/3) trigger higher phagocytosis by macrophages through a combined action of the complement type 3 receptor, TLR4, and unregulated activity of neutrophil elastase (NE), leading to parasite killing. Whereas all three components are required to mediate enhanced parasite uptake, only TLR4 and NE are necessary to promote parasite killing postinfection. We found that the production of superoxide by macrophages in the absence of ISP2 is the main mechanism controlling the intracellular infection. Furthermore, we show that NE modulates macrophage infection in vivo, and that the lack of ISP leads to reduced parasite burdens at later stages of the infection. Our findings support the hypothesis that ISPs function to prevent the activation of TLR4 by NE during the Leishmania–macrophage interaction to promote parasite survival and growth.

Role of the Trypanosoma brucei natural cysteine peptidase inhibitor ICP in differentiation and virulence

ICP is a chagasin‐family natural tight binding inhibitor of Clan CA, family C1 cysteine peptidases (CPs). We investigated the role of ICP in Trypanosoma brucei by generating bloodstream form ICP‐deficient mutants (Δicp). A threefold increase in CP activity was detected in lysates of Δicp, which was restored to the levels in wild type parasites by re‐expression of the gene in the null mutant. Δicp displayed slower growth in culture and increased resistance to a trypanocidal synthetic CP inhibitor. More efficient exchange of the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) to procyclin during differentiation from bloodstream to procyclic form was observed in Δicp, a phenotype that was reversed in the presence of synthetic CP inhibitors. Furthermore, we showed that degradation of anti‐VSG IgG is abolished when parasites are pretreated with synthetic CP inhibitors, and that parasites lacking ICP degrade IgG more efficiently than wild type. In addition, Δicp reached higher parasitemia than wild type parasites in infected mice, suggesting that ICP modulates parasite infectivity. Taken together, these data suggest that CPs of T. brucei bloodstream form play a role in surface coat exchange during differentiation, in the degradation of internalized IgG and in parasite infectivity, and that their function is regulated by ICP.