Ana Raquel Rosas Torres

Culture and the distinctiveness motive : constructing identity in individualistic and collectivistic contexts

The motive to attain a distinctive identity is sometimes thought to be stronger in, or even specific to, those socialized into individualistic cultures. Using data from 4,751 participants in 21 cultural groups (18 nations and 3 regions), we tested this prediction against our alternative view that culture would moderate the ways in which people achieve feelings of distinctiveness, rather than influence the strength of their motivation to do so. We measured the distinctiveness motive using an indirect technique to avoid cultural response biases. Analyses showed that the distinctiveness motive was not weaker-and, if anything, was stronger-in more collectivistic nations. However, individualism-collectivism was found to moderate the ways in which feelings of distinctiveness were constructed: Distinctiveness was associated more closely with difference and separateness in more individualistic cultures and was associated more closely with social position in more collectivistic cultures. Multilevel analysis confirmed that it is the prevailing beliefs and values in an individuals context, rather than the individuals own beliefs and values, that account for these differences.

Beyond the ‘East-West’ Dichotomy: Global Variation in Cultural Models of Selfhood

Markus and Kitayamas (1991) theory of independent and interdependent self-construals had a major influence on social, personality, and developmental psychology by highlighting the role of culture in psychological processes. However, research has relied excessively on contrasts between North American and East Asian samples, and commonly used self-report measures of independence and interdependence frequently fail to show predicted cultural differences. We revisited the conceptualization and measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals in 2 large-scale multinational surveys, using improved methods for cross-cultural research. We developed (Study 1: N = 2924 students in 16 nations) and validated across cultures (Study 2: N = 7279 adults from 55 cultural groups in 33 nations) a new 7-dimensional model of self-reported ways of being independent or interdependent. Patterns of global variation support some of Markus and Kitayamas predictions, but a simple contrast between independence and interdependence does not adequately capture the diverse models of selfhood that prevail in different world regions. Cultural groups emphasize different ways of being both independent and interdependent, depending on individualism-collectivism, national socioeconomic development, and religious heritage. Our 7-dimensional model will allow future researchers to test more accurately the implications of cultural models of selfhood for psychological processes in diverse ecocultural contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record

Contextualism as an Important Facet of Individualism-Collectivism Personhood Beliefs Across 37 National Groups

Beliefs about personhood are understood to be a defining feature of individualism-collectivism (I-C), but they have been insufficiently explored, given the emphasis of research on values and self-construals. We propose the construct of contextualism, referring to beliefs about the importance of context in understanding people, as a facet of cultural collectivism. A brief measure was developed and refined across 19 nations (Study 1: N = 5,241), showing good psychometric properties for cross-cultural use and correlating well at the nation level with other supposed facets and indicators of I-C. In Study 2 (N = 8,652), nation-level contextualism predicted ingroup favoritism, corruption, and differential trust of ingroup and outgroup members, while controlling for other facets of I-C, across 35 nations. We conclude that contextualism is an important part of cultural collectivism. This highlights the importance of beliefs alongside values and self-representations and contributes to a wider understanding of cultural processes.

Um estudo do preconceito na perspectiva das representações sociais: análise da influência de um discurso justificador da discriminação no preconceito racial

This paper analyses the influence, from a social representations view, of a justifying discourse about racial prejudice. In an experiment (N = 120), it was presented to participants a scenario where a shop manager hires a white girl discriminating a black one. Half of participants also received a discourse justifying the managers decision. The results show that the representation of that decision is organized in two principles: professional evaluation and justice perception. The participants who had access to the justifying discourse considered the managers decision as been more professional and less unfair than the participants who did not see that discourse. The former group was also more tended to hire the white girl, while the other group did not show a racial preference. The discussion presents modern prejudice as a result of ideological discourses produced by majority groups to justify their social position.

Análise psicossocial do preconceito contra homossexuais

Studies about prejudice and discrimination carried out in several countries have demonstrated that such phenomenon is taking more subtle shapes. This work is inserted in this field and investigates sexual orientation effects in the infra-humanization process. Participants were 135 students from the human resources post-graduation course. They had answered a questionnaire that required them to evaluate individuals who could be either homosexuals or heterosexuals by the attribution of natural or cultural characteristics in order to verify the presence of the infra-humanization process in the prejudice against homosexuals. Different from the previous studies, the results indicated that the prejudice against homosexuals is expressed in a more subtle way through the attribution of more positive characteristics to heterosexuals and the attribution of the same level of negative characteristics to both groups of individuals. These results are discussed emphasizing the importance of more studies about the subject which has been neglected by social psychologist.

Preconceito contra homossexuais e representações sociais da homossexualidade em seminaristas católicos e evangélicos

This study analyzes the relationship between prejudice against homosexuals and social representations about homosexuality. Participants were 374 theology students (167 catholic and 207 evangelic) who individually answered a questionnaire about beliefs and attitudes toward homosexuals. Results allowed to identify two forms of prejudice: Subtle and blatant. The subtle prejudice is related to biological and psychosocial representations about homosexuality and to the disbelief in an ethical and moral nature of homosexuality. The blatant prejudice is related with the disbelief in a biological and psychosocial nature as well as with ethical and moral representations about homosexuality. In the discussion it is argued that social representations about the nature of minority groups can form the basis of prejudice and discrimination.

Cultural bases for self-evaluation: seeing oneself positively in different cultural contexts

Several theories propose that self-esteem, or positive self-regard, results from fulfilling the value priorities of one’s surrounding culture. Yet, surprisingly little evidence exists for this assertion, and theories differ about whether individuals must personally endorse the value priorities involved. We compared the influence of four bases for self-evaluation (controlling one’s life, doing one’s duty, benefitting others, achieving social status) among 4,852 adolescents across 20 cultural samples, using an implicit, within-person measurement technique to avoid cultural response biases. Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses showed that participants generally derived feelings of self-esteem from all four bases, but especially from those that were most consistent with the value priorities of others in their cultural context. Multilevel analyses confirmed that the bases of positive self-regard are sustained collectively: They are predictably moderated by culturally normative values but show little systematic variation with personally endorsed values.

Individual and culture-level components of survey response styles: a multi-level analysis using cultural models of selfhood

Variations in acquiescence and extremity pose substantial threats to the validity of cross-cultural research that relies on survey methods. Individual and cultural correlates of response styles when using 2 contrasting types of response mode were investigated, drawing on data from 55 cultural groups across 33 nations. Using 7 dimensions of self-other relatedness that have often been confounded within the broader distinction between independence and interdependence, our analysis yields more specific understandings of both individual- and culture-level variations in response style. When using a Likert-scale response format, acquiescence is strongest among individuals seeing themselves as similar to others, and where cultural models of selfhood favour harmony, similarity with others and receptiveness to influence. However, when using Schwartzs (2007) portrait-comparison response procedure, acquiescence is strongest among individuals seeing themselves as self-reliant but also connected to others, and where cultural models of selfhood favour self-reliance and self-consistency. Extreme responding varies less between the two types of response modes, and is most prevalent among individuals seeing themselves as self-reliant, and in cultures favouring self-reliance. As both types of response mode elicit distinctive styles of response, it remains important to estimate and control for style effects to ensure valid comparisons.

O papel de representações sociais sobre a natureza da homossexualidade na oposição ao casamento civil e à adoção por famílias homoafetivas

In this study the relationship between prejudice, support of discriminating policies against homosexuals and peoples social representations about the nature of homosexuality was analyzed. Participants were 297 final year psychology, social work, and law students. Results showed that the representations about homosexuality based on religious, moralist, and psychological beliefs are positively related to the support of discriminating policies against homosexuals, specifically the opposition to civil union and to childrens adoption by homosexuals. Beliefs about the cultural nature of homosexuality predicted lower support of these policies. These relations were mediated by blatant prejudice against homosexuals. These results show the role played by social representations about the nature of social groups in the maintenance of prejudices and discriminatory practices against minority groups.

Jealousy and infidelity: The role of gender identity and culture of honour

Abstract This research is aimed at examining whether gender and the culture of honour were associated with the type of infidelity (sexual or emotional) that is perceived as most disturbing. A total of 748 Spanish university students (336 men and 412 women), answered to six dilemmas which raised the type of infidelity that had greater impact on them (sexual or emotional), a scale of gender identity and a scale of culture of honour. The results showed that both men and women were more affected by emotional infidelity. In addition it was found that the effect of sex on the type of infidelity that stresses the participants more was moderated by sociocultural variables such as the culture of honour, masculinity and femininity.