Anat Scher

Parenting and infant sleep

Infant sleep undergoes dramatic evolution during the first year of life. This process is driven by underlying biological forces but is highly dependent on environmental cues including parental influences. In this review the links between infant sleep and parental behaviors, cognitions, emotions and relationships as well as psychopathology are examined within the context of a transactional model. Parental behaviors, particularly those related to bedtime interactions and soothing routines, are closely related to infant sleep. Increased parental involvement is associated with more fragmented sleep. Intervention based on modifying parental behaviors and cognitions have direct effect on infant sleep. It appears that parental personality, psychopathology and related cognitions and emotions contribute to parental sleep-related behaviors and ultimately influence infant sleep. However, the links are bidirectional and dynamic so that poor infant sleep may influence parental behaviors and poor infant sleep appears to be a family stressor and a risk factor for maternal depression.

The relationship between sleep and temperament revisited: evidence for 12-month-olds: a research note.

This study measured the sleep attributes of 30 normal 12-month-old children with a computerized movement detector (Actigraph). Data on the childs temperament was based on the Carey Toddler Temperament Questionnaire, which the mother completed. The main finding was that rhythmic children went to sleep earlier and had longer sleep duration; however, their sleep pattern was not more efficient compared to children with irregular rhythmicity. The results of the present study provide only limited evidence to the association between the regulation of sleep-wake cycles and the temperamental characteristics of the child. Hence it may be concluded that within non-referred low-risk infants, temperament does not discriminate between good and poor sleepers. Alternatively, however, the marginal relationship between sleep and temperament demonstrated in the present study may reflect the limitation of maternal perception as a source for temperament assessment.

Sleep patterns of infants and young children in Israel

The sleep habits of 661 Israeli children between the ages of 4 months and 4 years were described by their mothers. Twenty-eight per cent reported that their children woke up at least once a week. In the group of regular wakers, the mean number of interrupted nights per week was 4.7, and the mean number of awakenings per night was 2.0. Significant age-related changes in sleep patterns were indicated. The results of this study suggest that sleep and settling patterns in different sociocultural groups are quite similar. These data indicate the existence of an inherent pattern in the maturation of sleep behaviour in the developing child.

Parenting anxiety and stress: does gender play a part at 3 months of age?

In this study, the authors compared 90 pairs of mothers and fathers with respect to aspects of negative emotionality experienced in the early parenting role. Mothers and fathers of 90 healthy 3-month-old infants completed questionnaires pertaining to parenting stress and separation anxiety. Mothers reported significantly higher levels of negative emotionality than did fathers. An interaction effect of parent with child gender on the level of parenting stress was indicated. Mothers of sons reported more stress than did mothers of daughters. The childs gender was not related to the level of separation anxiety expressed by mothers and fathers. The findings suggested that, at 3 months of age, the childs gender plays a role in the parenting experience, but the impact is (a) moderated by the parents gender and (b) construct-specific (e.g., stress). These findings are in line with a multidetermined model of parenting.

Stability and Changes in Sleep Regulation: A Longitudinal Study from 3 Months to 3 Years.

The goal of the study was to examine the developmental course of sleep consolidation from infancy to preschool. The sleep of 50 healthy infants aged 3 months was recorded, at home, with actigraphs (computerised activity monitors). Follow-up recordings were carried out at 6, 9, 12, 20, and 42 months (due to attrition and occasional technical failures, complete sleep records were not available for all subjects at all ages). The main findings were that by 12 months, nocturnal sleep is well organised; nevertheless, sleep continues to become less fragmented and more efficient beyond the first year. The child’s level of motor activity during sleep, and the overall sleep efficiency were moderately stable across time. In contrast, sleep duration and the number of nightwaking episodes were unstable from 3 to 42 months of age. Taken together, the continuity and change in the group trajectory of sleep maturation, as well as the stability and the periodic instability in the individuals’ rank across time, may be interpreted to reflect the interplay among constitutional, maturational, and experiential factors.

Persistent night waking and settling difficulties across the first year: early precursors of later behavioural problems?

This study examined, in a community sample, if persistent sleep difficulties during infancy are an early precursor of later behavioural difficulties. Sixty‐eight mothers completed the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL 2/3) when their child was 42 months of age. The CBCL scores were examined in light of sleep data collected at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months of age, and temperament ratings that were completed at 3 and 9 months. Night waking decreased from infancy to age 3 years, whereas difficulties with sleep schedule (initiation and duration) increased over time. Fussy temperament during infancy was associated with higher CBCL scores. As night waking across the first year uniquely predicted only 3% of the behavioural scores at 42 months, it was argued that in low‐risk infants, persistent night waking, by itself, is not a precursor of later behavioural problems. However, when persistent night waking was combined with ongoing settling difficulties, children were more likely to score higher on the CBCL compared to children who, as infants, were continuously good sleepers. Given that all the measures were based on maternal reports, it is not clear if the modest association between sleep characteristics during infancy and subsequent behavioural adjustment reflects constitutional, contextual, and/or methodological factors.

Mother's Attachment Concerns Regarding Spouse and Infant's Temperament as Modulators of Maternal Separation Anxiety

The modulators of maternal separation anxiety were examined in a longitudinal study with 97 mothers of infants from 3 to 9 months of age. The objective of the study was to examine the joint contribution of the mothers attachment concerns as related to her husband together with the perception of the infants temperament to her concerns over separation from her child. Maternal worries about separation from 3-month-old infants predicted maternal separation anxiety when infants were 9 months old. Mothers attachment to her husband and her perception of her childs temperament further predicted maternal separation anxiety at 9 months over and above the worries at 3 months. Mothers who feared dependent relationships with their husbands experienced high levels of maternal separation anxiety. This tendency was particularly marked when the infant was perceived as adaptable at 3 months. In addition, secure mothers, namely, mothers low in fear of abandonment and in fear of being dependent, increased their maternal separation anxiety as a function of their infants perceived unadaptability.

Sleep characteristics of asthmatics in the first four years of life: a comparative study.

The association between asthma and sleep disturbances was assessed as part of a community survey of sleep patterns in children aged 4-48 months. A questionnaire covering the area of past and present sleep and settling behaviour, as well as health history and demographic data, was administered to 752 mothers of children visiting 14 well baby clinics. Fifty one (6.8%) of the children who were diagnosed as having asthma by their paediatricians were compared with the remaining healthy controls (children with perinatal problems, other chronic illnesses, developmental problems, or repeat admissions to hospital were excluded). Thirty nine per cent of the children with asthma and 38% of the normal controls were identified as regular wakers. The number of interrupted nights each week, settling time, and sleep duration were comparable. In the children with asthma an uninterrupted nights sleep was acquired later than in the control group. Parental perception of the severity of the sleep problem was similar in the two groups, as were the calming techniques. It is concluded that this study does not support a significantly increased prevalence of sleep disturbances among young children with asthma compared with their healthy peers.

Mothers' Attachment with Spouse and Parenting in the First Year

This study examines the links between mother-spouse attachment dimensions and early parenting experiences. The sample consisted of 118 mothers who take part in a longitudinal investigation of child development. When their infants were 9 months old, mothers completed an attachment questionnaire and reported on maternal separation anxiety and on their attitudes toward developmental and socialization goals which they set for their child. It was found that the assignment of limited developmental goals was characteristic of mothers who fear being abandoned by their spouse. Contrary to expectations, mothers who fear close and dependent relationships reported higher levels of maternal separation anxiety and tended to stay home and care for their baby. The results are discussed in terms of a differential-modular versus a similarity model of relationships.

The Onset of Upright Locomotion and Night Wakings

Frequency of awakenings of 9 prewalkers was lower than that of 14 walkers in a longitudinal study.