Anders Bakken

Municipal-level differences in depressive symptoms among adolescents in Norway: Results from the cross-national Ungdata study.

Aim: This study aimed to investigate municipal-level variations and individual- and municipal-level predictors of high levels of depressive symptoms among Norwegian adolescents. Methods: We used data from the Norwegian cross-national Ungdata study. We included 77,424 adolescents from 171 municipalities attending junior high school (Grades 8–10; age 13–16 years) from 2011 to 2013. Multilevel (two-level) logistic regression models were applied for the data analyses. Results: The study revealed that 11% of adolescents reported high levels of depressive symptoms. The median odds ratio without adjusting for any individual- or municipal-level predictors was 1.24, indicating a small between-municipalities variability for high levels of depressive symptoms. All individual-level factors, such as gender, school grade, family income, substance use behaviours, bullying and dissatisfaction with different aspects of life, were significantly associated with high levels of depressive symptoms (p < 0.05). As to municipal-level factors, a low annual budgets for municipal health services was the sole significant predictor of high levels of depressive symptoms between municipalities. Municipal-level factors and variables related to survey characteristics explained a moderate proportion of the variation in high levels of depressive symptoms between municipalities. Conclusions: The cluster heterogeneity in high levels of depressive symptoms was small between municipalities in Norway. Further research should examine the geographic clustering of mental health problems at the school and neighbourhood level.

Adolescents from affluent city districts drink more alcohol than others

AIMS To estimate the level of alcohol consumption and problems among adolescents in city districts in Oslo, Norway with different socio-economic composition; to test whether differences in alcohol consumption are related to district differences in socio-demographic characteristics; and to analyse whether such associations remain significant after controlling for individual-level variables. DESIGN Cross-sectional survey using multi-level linear regression analyses with individual responses at the lowest level and city-district data at the highest level. SETTING Oslo, Norway. PARTICIPANTS A total of 6635 secondary school students, in 62 schools, living in 15 different city districts. MEASUREMENTS Frequency of alcohol consumption and alcohol intoxication; alcohol problems; and individual characteristics such as immigrant status, religious involvement and parental norms with regard to alcohol. Socio-economic indicators in city districts, such as education, income and unemployment, were combined into a district-level socio-economic index (DLSI). FINDINGS DLSI scores were related positively to alcohol use (r = 0.31, P < 0.01) and alcohol intoxication (r = 0.25, P < 0.01) but negatively to alcohol problems among alcohol users (r = -0.18, P < 0.01). DLSI scores remained significant for alcohol consumption and alcohol intoxication, after controlling for individual-level variables (P < 0.01), but this was not the case for alcohol problems. CONCLUSION Adolescents in affluent areas of Oslo, Norway report the highest levels of alcohol consumption and alcohol intoxication of all areas; neighbourhood characteristics such as education, income and unemployment levels seem to play a role in such drinking behaviour. Alcohol users in poorer districts reported more alcohol problems than those in other districts; however, here neighbourhood effects do not seem to play a role.

Urban landscapes of adolescent substance use

Cities are increasingly organised according to socio-spatial divisions in which groups with similar characteristics live in the same areas. This social polarisation is associated with differences in living conditions, health, morbidity and mortality. Traditionally, ‘areas of disadvantage’ have also been associated with increased risk of harmful substance use. However, some recent studies suggest that ‘areas of affluence’ may socialise adolescents into high levels of alcohol consumption. Using a combination of city district-level socio-economic data and surveys of adolescents, we investigated patterns of substance use in different city districts of Oslo, Norway, with the aim to shed more light on these conflicting previous findings. We found that adolescents in the affluent parts of Oslo West reported the highest levels of recreational smoking, snus use and alcohol use. Those in the poorer Oslo Central East reported the highest levels of daily smoking, alcohol problems and cannabis use. After controlling for individual- and family-based risk factors, significant area differences remained, except with regard to alcohol problems and cannabis use. We conclude that adolescents living in affluent areas report the highest use of several psychoactive substances, but in a manner that is usually compatible with a rather health-oriented lifestyle. By contrast, those from socio-economically disadvantaged districts near the city centre use substances in a manner that may have greater potential for social marginalisation, morbidity and mortality.

The effects of parental income on Norwegian adolescents’ school grades: A sibling analysis

Associations between family income and offspring’s educational attainment are well-established. A debated topic is whether this association is due to the causal influence of family income per se, or arises because of other family-related circumstances which correlate with income. This study examines the relationship between parental income and Norwegian adolescents’ school grades, using register data on all 16-year-old graduates from lower secondary schools during 2002–2011. Data are analysed both by conventional ordinary least square regression and by sibling analyses using fixed effect models. The sibling analyses control not only for observed covariates but also for unobserved time-invariant environmental and family-related characteristics, implying that the causal effects of income may be better approximated. The results indicate that generally, variations in parental income in contemporary Norway have modest effects on lower secondary school grades. However, noteworthy income effects are found among the 5% of families with the lowest incomes, suggesting that in these families, lack of income hinders children’s school performance.

Social class differences in youths’ participation in organized sports: What are the mechanisms?:

Despite several decades of Sport for All policies, social class differences in organized sports participation of youth persist. However, few population-based studies have examined how social class may influence adolescent participation. We use survey data from upper secondary school students (aged 16–19) from the Norwegian capital of Oslo (N = 10,531) and investigate the factors through which social class operates. To measure parental social class, we use the well-established Erikson, Goldthorpe and Portocarero class scheme, supplemented by indicators of economic and cultural resources. We also include data on immigrant status, neighbourhood and school affiliation. There were large differences in organized sport participation between youth from the higher and lower social classes. Indicators of parental economic resources mediated many of these differences and had an additional independent statistical effect. Indicators of cultural resources, immigrant status, and neighbourhood and school affiliation only had modest effects. We conclude that social class plays a major role in organized sport participation, and economic resources are particularly important. Methodologically, we suggest that well-established social class schemes should be used in such research, supplemented with more detailed indicators of economic resources.

Exploring the minority–majority gap in sport participation: different patterns for boys and girls?

Abstract This paper examines the participation of minority and majority youth in organized sport based on the Young in Oslo 2015 survey (response rate: 72%, N = 9.774). Four possible explanations of the minority–majority gap are introduced: (i) culture, (ii) religion, (iii) discrimination/racism and (iv) class and socio-economic resources. Class and religion are further examined in the paper. Initially, among the boys, there are no differences between the minority and majority groups. When taking socio-economic resources into account, the minority boys have a slightly higher participation rate than the majority boys. Among the girls, the likelihood of participating in sport clubs is considerably lower for those with a minority background than for those with a majority background. The analyses show that socio-economic resources have an effect on both girls and boys and that religious denomination also explains, to some extent, the minority–majority gap that exists among girls.

Neighborhood or School? Influences on Alcohol Consumption and Heavy Episodic Drinking Among Urban Adolescents

Little is known about the relative influences of neighborhood and school on the alcohol socialization process. Survey data from the Young in Oslo Study (N = 10,038, mean age 17.1 years, 52% girls) were used to investigate the details of such influences, using cross-classified multilevel models. School and neighborhood contexts were equally important for ordinary alcohol use; however, neighborhood influences were mainly explained by individual and family factors, whereas peer-based sociocultural processes played a key role in explaining school effects. Neither context had much impact on heavy episodic drinking. The study suggests that “privileged” youth may be at risk of high alcohol consumption. Parental influences and peer-based sociocultural aspects of the school milieu should be considered in prevention efforts.

Anabolic–androgenic steroid use and correlates in Norwegian adolescents

Abstract This paper surveys the prevalence and correlates of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) use among Norwegian adolescents, and examines the degree to which sports participation is a mediating or moderating factor to well-known correlations between AAS use and problem behaviour. The data come from the “Ungdata” study, a cross-national youth survey system offered to all municipalities in Norway (response rate: 74%, N = 77,572). The study demonstrates a lifetime prevalence of AAS use of 1.27% and a higher prevalence among boys (1.81%) than girls (0.76%). The analyses show that AAS use is clearly related to problem behaviour such as violence and other substance use. When controlling for problem behaviour, there are no correlations between AAS use and exercising in a sports club or on one’s own, whilst there is a weak positive correlation between AAS use and exercising in a gym or engaging in other forms of physical exercise such as dancing or martial arts. These patterns are more or less the same for boys and for girls. We conclude that adolescent AAS use is a low-prevalence phenomenon that primarily takes place in smaller subgroups of individuals who engage in other forms of problem behaviour as well.

At risk for radicalization and jihadism? A population-based study of Norwegian adolescents

Little is known about attitudes among ordinary adolescents in favour of the use of political violence and radicalization. We draw on a survey from a population sample of adolescents (n = 8627) in the Norwegian capital, Oslo. We first compared adolescents with Muslim, Christian and no religious affiliation with regard to attitudes in favour of the use of violence for political purposes and support of those who go to Syria to take part in active combat. Muslim youth reported higher levels of support for the use of violence to obtain societal change than did other adolescents. The same pattern was revealed with regard to support for the fighters in Syria. After control for other variables, Muslim affiliation had no impact on attitudes in favour of politically motivated violence, though it remained significant for support for the fighters in Syria. However, here as well we found associations with poor school grades, conduct problems and exposure to violence, possibly indicating an emerging adolescent ‘outsider’ position. Political activity on social media also played a role. Such attitudes rarely develop into politically motivated violence and jihadism. However, for a small minority, they may represent the first step in that direction.