André Brouwers

Beyond demand–control: Emotional labour and symptoms of burnout in teachers

Abstract Teaching is a profession that involves a high level of emotional labour. This includes such behaviours as surface acting (displaying an emotion that is not actually felt), deep acting (the activity undertaken to actually feel a required emotion), and suppression of emotion. In many professions, this emotional labour is thought to be related to high levels of burnout. The aim of our study was to show that emotional labour has a unique relationship with burnout that is separate from its relationship with the variables of the Demand Control Support (DCS) model. Emotional labour was studied, together with the variables of the Karasek Job Demand Control Support model, in a random sample of 365 mathematics teachers in the Netherlands. We used the Dutch Questionnaire on Emotional Labor (D-QEL) that measures: (1) surface acting, (2) deep acting, (3) suppression, and (4) emotional consonance. In line with other studies, job characteristics were found to be specifically related to emotional exhaustion. Surface acting was significantly related to depersonalization, and emotional consonance (the absence of emotional labour) was related to personal accomplishment. We conclude that whereas the DCS model has been valuable for understanding emotional exhaustion, emotional labour provides an additional perspective for understanding work stress.

Burnout among Teachers Students’ and Teachers’ Perceptions Compared

The aim of this study was to explore students’ and teachers’ perceptions of teacher burnout in relation to the occurrence of disruptive student classroom behaviour and the teachers’ competence to cope with this kind of behaviour. First, the study shows that the Maslach Burnout Inventory, the Coping with Disruptive Behaviour Scale and the Perceived Disruptive Behaviour Scale could be adapted to students to report perceived burnout symptoms among their teachers, the occurrence of perceived disruptive student behaviour and the students’ perception of their teachers’ competence to cope with disruptive student behaviour. Second, students’ perceptions do not differ according to their age. Third, we found that there was a significant difference between the perceptions of male and female students in respect of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, but not in respect of personal accomplishment. Fourth, according to the students’ perceptions, a considerable percentage of variance in each of the three burnout dimensions was explained by teachers’ competence to cope with student disruptive behaviour and perceived disruptive student behaviour. Finally, with respect to the teachers’ self-reports, it appeared that teachers’ and students’ reports differed significantly with respect to depersonalization, personal accomplishment and the competence to cope with disruptive student behaviour. The hierarchical regression analyses of the teachers’ data showed that the competence to cope with disruptive student behaviour significantly contributed to depersonalization and personal accomplishment, whereas the teachers’ age was significantly related with personal accomplishment. Although the students’ perceptions and the teachers’ self-reports on the teachers’ well-being differed on some dimensions, the students’ information may contribute valid information on some aspects of teachers’ mental health and classroom processes.

The Factorial Validity of Scores on the Teacher Interpersonal Self-Efficacy Scale

The present study examined the factorial validity of scores on the Teacher Interpersonal Self-Efficacy Scale across two samples of 416 teachers each. Following self-efficacy theory, which posits that self-efficacy beliefs are linked to specific activities, it was hypothesized that the three Teacher Interpersonal Self-Efficacy subscales comprised three different activities linked to teacher self-efficacy beliefs. Confirmatory factor analysis results from the two samples supported the hypothesis by showing an adequate fit of a three-factor oblique model. This model fits the data better than either a two-factor or one-factor alternate model. Scores from the three subscales yielded coefficient alphas in excess of .90.

Predictors of willingness to register as an organ donor among dutch adolescents

Abstract In order to identify relevant determinants of organ donor registration among Dutch adolescents, a school-based cross-sectional survey was conducted among 145 high school students. Fifty-one percent of respondents indicated they were willing to register as organ donors and 80% reported a positive general attitude towards registration. Various misconceptions about the registration and donation procedure were identified. On average only moderate knowledge levels related to organ donation were found. In order of strongest association, negative outcome expectancies, past behaviour and experience, positive outcome expectancies, and social outcome expectancies proved to be significant predictors of willingness to register as organ donors. Self-efficacy was indirectly associated with willingness via outcome expectancies. Knowledge about organ donation was not significantly associated with willingness. The results suggest that in order to persuade adolescents to register as organ donors, refutational messages will have to be developed to counterargue the prevailing negative outcome expectancies related to organ donation and registration as an organ donor.

A Test of the Factorial Validity of the Teacher Efficacy Scale

67 T psychological and educational literature devotes much attention to the concept of teacher efficacy, which is usually described as ‘the extent to which the teacher believes he or she has the capacity to affect student performance’ (Bergman et al., 1977, p. 137). In a review of virtually all sources dated between 1974 and 1997 that used the term ‘teacher efficacy’ Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998) identified over 100 articles, conference papers and books that refer somehow or other to teacher efficacy. Down through the years the concept of teacher efficacy has been connected with many important educational variables such as student achievement, student attitudes to school, student attitudes to the subject matter being taught, student attitudes to the teacher, teachers’ classroom behaviours, teachers’ attitudes to teaching, teacher stress and burn-out, and teachers’ willingness to implement innovation (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Many measurement instruments have been developed to assess teacher efficacy, based on two areas of research (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). The first one is grounded in Rotter’s social learning theory of internal versus external control (1966). According to this theory, teachers who believe that they are competent to teach difficult or unmotivated students are considered to have internal control, whereas teachers who believe that the environment has more influence on student learning than their own teaching ability are considered to have external control. The Rand organisation, the first to conduct research on teacher efficacy, developed two items to measure a teacher’s locus of control (Armor et al., 1976). The statement that indicates that environmental factors overwhelm a teacher’s power to influence student learning was labelled ‘general teaching efficacy’. The other, labelled ‘personal teaching efficacy’, indicates the importance of a teacher’s ability to overcome factors that could make learning difficult for students. In the course of time several other instruments were developed to measure teacher efficacy in the Rotter tradition, including Teacher Locus of Control (Rose and Medway, 1981), Responsibility for Student Achievement (Guskey, 1981) and the Webb Efficacy Scale (Ashton et al., 1982). The second area of research on teacher efficacy is grounded in Bandura’s social cognitive theory and his construct of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). A test of the factorial validity of the Teacher Efficacy Scale

Associate editor: B. TeicherTargeting breast cancer through its microenvironment: Current status of preclinical and clinical research in finding relevant targets

It is increasingly evident that not only breast cancer cells, but also the tissue embedding these cells: the tumor microenvironment, plays an important role in tumor progression, metastasis formation and treatment sensitivity. This review focuses on the current knowledge of processes by which the microenvironment affects breast cancer, including formation of the metastatic niche, metabolic stimulation, stimulation of tumor cell migration, immune modulation, angiogenesis and matrix remodeling. The number of drugs targeting key factors in these processes is expanding, and the available clinical data is increasing. Therefore current strategies for intervention and prediction of treatment response are outlined. At present, targeting the formation of the metastatic niche and metabolic stimulation by the breast cancer microenvironment, are already showing clinical efficacy. Intervening in the stimulation of tumor cell migration and immune modulation by the microenvironment upcoming fields of great research interest. In contrast, targeting microenvironmental angiogenesis or matrix remodeling appears to be of limited clinical relevance in breast cancer treatment so far. Further research is warranted to optimize intervention strategies and develop predictive tests for the relevance of targeting involved factors within the microenvironment in order to optimally personalize breast cancer treatment.

A confirmatory factor analysis of scores on the teacher efficacy scale

Validity studies on the Teacher Efficacy Scale provide us with neither clear evidence nor clear solutions to the factorial structure or the theoretical concepts underlying the scale’s items. This study tests different factor structures of the Teacher Efficacy Scale as found in the literature using confirmatory factor analysis on data from a sample of 540 practicing teachers. Four factorial models were formulated based on theoretical analysis and on the results of several validity studies of the Teacher Efficacy Scale. In accordance with Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy theory, the results revealed that the fit of the four-factor oblique model was significantly better than that of the other factorial models. However, the fit of the four-factor model did not reach the recommended criterion of adequately fitting models. After eliminating three poorly loaded items, the model’s fit improved significantly but insufficiently to reach the fit criterion. It was concluded that the Teacher Efficacy Scale in its curren...

Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction course on stress, mindfulness, job self-efficacy and motivation among unemployed people

The current study examines the effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction program on participants receiving unemployment benefit payments. A pretest posttest control group design was used. The participants (N = 43) were randomly divided into two groups. The experimental group followed the mindfulness-based stress reduction program in a group-setting with a trainer whereas the control group did not receive any training. All the participants received a pre-test and a post-test. Stress was measured with the Perceived Stress Scale, mindfulness with the Questionnaire on Everyday Experiences, self-efficacy with regard to finding a job with the Job Seeking Self-Efficacy Scale and motivation was measured with a questionnaire developed by the researchers. The results showed that stress symptoms had reduced and the focus on everyday activities had increased in the experimental group setting. Confidence in being able to find a job also increased. With respect to motivation to go to job interviews, no increase was found between the initial and final measurements for either group.

Emotional labor: ontwikkeling en validering van de Dutch Questionnaire on Emotional Labor(D-QEL)

Emotional labor:Development and validation of the Dutch Questionnaire on Emotional Labor (D-QEL)In this study emotional labor is defined as intentional, internal processes which create or maintain a state of dissonance. This paper describes the development and the subsequent validation of the Dutch Questionnaire on Emotional Labor (D-QEL) as tested on samples of 365 teachers in mathematics and 334 nurses in the Netherlands. The D-QEL is a 13 item self-report questionnaire that measures four facets of emotional display in the workplace, including surface acting, deep acting, surface acting hiding and emotional consonance. Estimates of the internal consistency ranged from .61 to .85. Confirmatory factor analysis provided support for the existence of four separate subscales. Evidence was also provided for convergent, discriminant and criterion validity.

Where Do Teachers Get Their Ideas From

The study investigated where and in what way secondary school teachers in the Netherlands generate ideas linked to their work environment using a self-report measure. Before idea generation teachers prefer to be alone in a quiet environment, almost always away from work. They consult colleagues, professional periodicals and specialized books. Also during the moment of idea generation, teachers are usually alone at home. In bed turns out to be a good place for generating new ideas. The work environment is not an appropriate place for getting ideas. After an idea occurs to them, teachers write it down immediately, talk to experts to evaluate it and to develop it in further detail, searching for facts supporting the idea.