André Melzer

Are Cyberbullies Less Empathic? Adolescents' Cyberbullying Behavior and Empathic Responsiveness

Meta-analyses confirm a negative relationship between aggressive behavior and empathy, that is, the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. Based on theoretical considerations, it was, therefore, hypothesized that a lack of empathic responsiveness may be characteristic for cyberbullies in particular. In the present study, 2.070 students of Luxembourg secondary schools completed an online survey that included a cyberbullying questionnaire(4) and a novel empathy short scale. According to the main hypothesis, analyses of variances indicated that cyberbullies demonstrated less empathic responsiveness than non-cyberbullies. In addition, cyberbullies were also more afraid of becoming victims of cyberbullying. The findings confirm and substantially extend the research on the relationship between empathy and aggressive behavior. From an educational point of view, the present findings suggest that training of empathy skills might be an important tool to decrease cyberbullying.

Parental Mediation of Children's Television and Video Game use in Germany: Active and Embedded in Family Processes

In a survey study, 158 dyads of German parents and their 9 to 12-year-old children reported on their television and video game (VG) consumption, parental mediation strategies, and family climate. Parents also reported their beliefs concerning media effects. We found that mediation strategies differ from acknowledged media usage conceptions in that parents play a more active role than previously assumed. Restrictive mediation comprises rules and restrictions, but also parents’ educative explanations that media do not reflect reality. Patronizing mediation includes shared media consumption, but also parents commenting on media contents. Pointing out and emphasizing socio-emotional features in the media (e.g., empathy) characterize active-emotional co-use (AEC). Regression analyses revealed that parental fear of negative media effects predicted both AEC and restrictive mediation. Children and parents’ congruent perceptions of family interactions predicted AEC and patronizing VG mediation. Overall, positive ratings of family interactions were associated with children using media less frequently.

The Allure of the Forbidden Breaking Taboos, Frustration, and Attraction to Violent Video Games

Although people typically avoid engaging in antisocial or taboo behaviors, such as cheating and stealing, they may succumb in order to maximize their personal benefit. Moreover, they may be frustrated when the chance to commit a taboo behavior is withdrawn. The present study tested whether the desire to commit a taboo behavior, and the frustration from being denied such an opportunity, increases attraction to violent video games. Playing violent games allegedly offers an outlet for aggression prompted by frustration. In two experiments, some participants had no chance to commit a taboo behavior (cheating in Experiment 1, stealing in Experiment 2), others had a chance to commit a taboo behavior, and others had a withdrawn chance to commit a taboo behavior. Those in the latter group were most attracted to violent video games. Withdrawing the chance for participants to commit a taboo behavior increased their frustration, which in turn increased their attraction to violent video games.

Bringing empathy into play: on the effects of empathy in violent and nonviolent video games

While violent media has adverse effects on cognition, emotion and behavior, prosocial content promotes these variables in a prosocial way. Greater individual levels of empathy as well as increasing the level of empathy in media content typically foster prosocial behavior and reduce aggression. Two experiments replicated game content findings, and also showed that inducing empathy prior to a video game had a positive influence on behavior. However, under certain circumstances, inducing empathy before playing a violent video game may even have negative effects on behavior. As empathy is a common tool in prevention programs, the implications of these findings are discussed.

The Mere Exposure Effect Is Sensitive to Color Information Evidence for Color Effects in a Perceptual Implicit Memory Test

Priming effects in perceptual tests of implicit memory are assumed to be perceptually specific. Surprisingly, changing object colors from study to test did not diminish priming in most previous studies. However, these studies used implicit tests that are based on object identification, which mainly depends on the analysis of the object shape and therefore operates color-independently. The present study shows that color effects can be found in perceptual implicit tests when the test task requires the processing of color information. In Experiment 1, reliable color priming was found in a mere exposure design (preference test). In Experiment 2, the preference test was contrasted with a conceptually driven color-choice test. Altering the shape of object from study to test resulted in significant priming in the color-choice test but eliminated priming in the preference test. Preference judgments thus largely depend on perceptual processes. In Experiment 3, the preference and the color-choice test were studied under explicit test instructions. Differences in reaction times between the implicit and the explicit test suggest that the implicit test results were not an artifact of explicit retrieval attempts. In contrast with previous assumptions, it is therefore concluded that color is part of the representation that mediates perceptual priming.

The Interactive and Multi-protagonist Film: A Hypermovie on DVD

The interactive and multi-protagonist (IMP) film is a novel concept that extends the hypermovie genre. The IMP film is based on the common structures of linear narrative storytelling and provides the viewer with various decision points within the evolving story that support an active choice among different protagonists’ views. The viewer will thus be elevated to the role of a decision maker. They individually and actively determine the story flow. The IMP film substantially extends the currently offered interactivity of DVDs which is primarily limited to navigation. The production process of an IMP film will be illustrated by presenting Deine Wahrheit (Your Truth), a DVD-based movie. The results of an empirical study support the advantages of the IMP film compared to a traditional single-protagonist version of the film. The potential of the IMP film as a new genre in hypermovie will be discussed.

Trick with treat - Reciprocity increases the willingness to communicate personal data

Information security is a significant challenge for information and communication technologies (ICT). This includes withstanding attempts of social engineering aimed at manipulating people into divulging confidential information. However, many users are lacking awareness of the risks involved. In a field survey that tested reciprocal behavior in social interactions, 1208 participants were asked to reveal their personal password. In line with the social norm of reciprocity, more than one third of the participants were willing to do so when they received a small incentive. Elicitation was even more successful when the incentive was given right before asking for the password. The results, including moderating factors (e.g., age, gender), are discussed in the light of security awareness of ICT users and the mechanisms of psychological persuasion. Information security is a challenge for information and communication technologies.Many users are lacking the awareness of the risk of social engineering strategies.More than one third of participants were willing to reveal personal passwords.Elicitation was more successful when a small incentive (i.e., chocolate) was given.

Click or strike: realistic versus standard game controls in violent video games and their effects on aggression

The motion detection technology used in innovative game controlling devices like the Nintendo Wii-Remote® provides experiences of realistic and immersive game play. In the present study (N=62) it was tested whether this technology may also provoke stronger aggression-related effects than standard forms of interaction (i.e., keyboard and mouse). With the aid of a gesture recognition algorithm, a violent action role-playing game was developed to compare different modes of interaction within an otherwise identical game environment. In the Embodied Gestures condition participants performed realistic striking movements that caused the virtual character to attack and kill other ingame characters with a club or sword. In the Standard Interaction condition attacks resulted from simple mouse clicks. After the game session, participants showed a similar increase in negative feelings in both groups. When provided with ambiguous scenarios, however, participants in the Embodied Gestures condition tended to show more hostile cognitions (i.e., anger) than the Standard Interaction group. Results further corroborate the complexity of aggression-related effects in violent video games, especially with respect to situational factors like realistic game controls.

The E in Media is for Empathy

The authors provide an in-depth analysis of the current research on empathy in violent media, and video games in particular. They argue that little attention has been paid to the role of empathy in the media context so far. Happ and Melzer present two experimental studies that test the effects of empathy induction before playing a video game on players’ perception and behavior. Study 1 aims at exploring the role of empathy as a moderator in a prosocial video game and a violent video game. Study 2 tests the differential effects of feeling empathy with violent video game characters. Inducing empathy in video games turns out to be beneficial, but it may also have deleterious consequences, depending on whom one feel empathy for.

‘Dear Researcher, Gamers, Parents, and Teachers …’

In the final chapter, Happ and Melzer discuss the results of their experimental studies more broadly and give an outlook for future research. As a summary, practical applications of the findings are discussed. Results indicate that increasing empathy might not always be the appropriate way to reduce aggressive behavior. So far, taking the perspective of victims of violence and examining one’s feelings has proven to be an important aspect of successful violence prevention programs. Based on the present results, however, caution in handling empathy inductions is advised. These findings are more specifically addressed to gamers, teachers, and parents, and need to be taken into account when designing and implementing future media literacy programs or violence prevention trainings.