André Torre

Is geographical proximity necessary in the innovation networks in the era of global economy

In the analysis of geographical spillovers, a commonly accepted hypothesis is that the different actors of innovation need to be physically closed to one another because the transfer of tacit knowledge implies frequent face-to-face relations. This hypothesis is put under closer examination in this paper. The first section analyses the need for economic agents to be closely located to develop research and innovative activities, starting with the analysis of their need for co-ordination and using some case studies. Based on the example of three French regions, the second section examines the importance given by the local development policies to geographical proximity in order to support the rapid development of local networks favouring innovation. In both sections, nonlocal relations appear as a key factor to develop innovation. As a conclusion, nonlocal relations should be encouraged by local development policies in the same way as local relations.

Collective action, governance structure and organizational trust in localized systems of production. The case of the AOC organization of small producers

The objective of this paper is to explore the collective organizational forms that prevail in localized systems of production. More precisely, in a study on the governance of groups of small agricultural producers, we found that a club-based organization with a strong internal governance structure presents great advantages. Collective action, contractual relations and organizational trust are important in this governance system. This paper contributes to the discussion on Appellation d’Origine Contrôlées (AOCs, Designation of Controlled Origin) and more particularly provides new elements that help to understand the forms of collective organization that prevail in these systems. The amount of research dedicated to AOCs has increased so much that it is no longer legitimate to claim that they are just an obsolete form of local production with no future, or a harking back to the past. Yet, they are still often considered as curiosities, and few studies in the field of economic organization have focused on the organizational methods that prevail in these localized groups of producers. Basing ourselves on a specific example – that of the Comté AOC – economic arguments are presented in terms of legitimacy. It is shown (1) that it is possible to analyse the methods of internal organization of an AOC, and (2) that this analysis should be centred on a common good – reputation – that justifies and requires this form of co-ordination and brings into play mechanisms of organizational trust.

Local organisations and institutions. How can geographical proximity be activated by collective projects

This paper deals critically with the concept of geographical proximity as a prerequisite for successful regional innovation processes. Using three case studies we show that regional development studies need to connect geographical proximity with organisational proximity achieved by actions to mobilise resources around a collective project or utilising common institutional routines and values.

Proximity economics and environment: assessment and prospects

The use of the theoretical tools provided by proximity economics to address environmental questions, and the emergence of analyses revitalising the role of the spatial dimension in environmental problems, date from the late 1990s. This paper first aims to provide a review of the research conducted in this field and second to suggest some future research directions concerning the respective roles of geographical proximity and organised proximity in the production and management of environmental problems. First, it deals with the topic of ‘geographical proximity and land-use conflicts’, a topic that is currently the most researched in this field. This is followed by a discussion of the role of organised proximity in the regulation of environmental problems. The paper then explores the relation between the uncertainty associated with environmental issues and relations of organised proximity. Next it outlines a few possible research directions, focusing more particularly on the roles of geographical proximity as a mode of regulation of environmental problems, and on the possible role of organised proximity in their production. The concluding section draws an overview of the departures and extensions that have resulted from taking into account environmental issues in the paradigm of proximity economics.

Geographical proximity and the diffusion of knowledge

Since the principle that the capacity for innovation is a driving force in the growth of firms or other productive systems has been acknowledged, public policies hold to the view that geographical proximity plays a part in the process of the circulation of technology and knowledge, by fostering the kind of face to face relationships needed to establish and maintain a common pool of knowledge. The aim of this article is to question the relevance of these ideas, and enquiring as to whether geographical proximity is really needed for the diffusion and exchange of knowledge. A body of literature (local systems of production and externalities) considers permanent geographical proximity as a necessary condition for the diffusion of knowledge (I) whereas the articles dealing with transmission channels for externalities, show that geographical proximity only influences the innovative performance of firms if there is effective interaction between the agents (II). We show that organisation is the first modality in the transmission of knowledge, and that geographical proximity can be temporary, particularly in the initial phases of the R&D processes. The smaller firms are then more acutely aware to fulfil the need of de geographical proximity (III). This pattern, applied to plant biotechnology (IV), reveals that SME’s related to the AFI and to agriculture are part of a less diversified and more local innovation network than pharmaceutical SME’s and are more involved in frequent and repeated contacts with the clients and the suppliers.

Geographical proximity and circulation of knowledge through inter-firm cooperation

The production of scientific and technological innovations has become essential for many firms, but the latter are seldom in possession of all the knowledge needed for this activity because of the increasing complexity of knowledge bases or because RD one must also be able to use it in a specific process of production, to transform it into organizational routines, because it is important not only to integrate this knowledge, but ideally to use it to produce new knowledge. This process of creation, re-creation or imitation of new resources not only necessitates several technical and organizational adaptations, but also requires frequent relations of cooperation and partnership. The integration of new knowledge cannot be done in one go, but progressively during the course of the innovation projects, which implies that relations be sustained for a period of time. But the interests of the participants to this interactive process, as well as their opinions concerning technical issues sometimes vary or diverge. This is why co-operations are also sources of tensions and conflicts that jeopardize the adaptation of knowledge produced somewhere else to the context of the firm or even completely hinder the innovation process. In this paper, we try to provide some answers to the following question: What is the role played by geographical and organized proximities in the context of these external acquisitions of knowledge? In other words, can they help reduce the intensity of conflicts and thus facilitate the interactive process of innovations? First, we present shortcomings of innovation theory and works on spillovers claiming the importance of geographical proximity for circulation of knowledge without considering organizational prerequisites to reach this impact. Having explained the relevance of permanent as well as temporary geographical proximity, we will then turn to a discussion of conflicts between cooperators within innovation processes from a theoretical as well as an empirical perspective. The empirical study is based on a case study of French biotechnology firms and will serve to prove our hypothesis that temporary geographical proximity play an important role in preventing and resolving conflicts between innovators.

The role of proximity during long-distance collaborative projects. Temporary geographical proximity helps

The idea that collaboration is easier between neighbours is nowadays being called into question. The outlines of the different types of proximities have become blurred, and the traditional proximity relations are being replaced by more contrasted relations, in which long-distance interactions and distrust towards ones neighbours are promoted by the constant development of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). This paper aims to analyse the respective role of ICT-based exchanges and of those that are made during face-to-face interactions in cooperation between firms engaged in long-distance collaborations. We base our theoretical considerations on various examples, which are based on the result of field research studies from our own work and then reformatted. We use them as stylised facts.

The modalities of territorial embeddedness of French Cooperative Groups

The article aims to analyse the modalities followed by French coopera-tive groups seeking to implement a territorial embeddedness process. It will at-tempt to clarify issues relating to the significance of this territorial dimension along with cooperative groups‟ strategies and behaviour. The text starts with a brief literature review elucidating the notion of territorial embeddedness and dis-tinguishing it from the territorial circumscription, while presenting the specificities of this concept for cooperatives. It then processes national statistics databases and comes up with a spatial topology of French cooperative groups. The second sec-tion offers a set of indicators that can be used to measure and test territorial em-beddedness, validated by a survey of 15 of France‟s leading agricultural coopera-tive groups. We demonstrate that, along with geographic location and statutory perimeter of action, territorial embeddedness also reflects three other main criteria, to wit: where the agricultural cooperative runs its operations; where its members are located; and where they receive the outputs and services that they are offered. There is no doubt that cooperative groups construct territorial embeddedness on the basis of a joint activation of relationships with their members – but it is just as clear that this construction varies depending on the extent of a group‟s integration into particular branches and markets.

Editorial: Reaching Out to New Territories …

A NEW TEAM ...While taking over the Editorial Board of a journal likeRegional Studies will never be easy, our start greatlybenefited from the excellent shape in which weinherited the journal from the team based in Newcastleupon Tyne. We were provided with avery healthy stockofpapers andspecialissues,andawell-organizedjournaladministration. Specialwords ofthanksshould go out toAndy Pike from Newcastle University, who not onlycoordinated an excellent team of Editors, but alsoarranged for a smooth and gradual transition betweenNewcastle and the new Editorial Board in Utrecht-Nijmegen. We are very happy that Andy Pike willremain in post as an Editor, so that we can benefitfrom his experience and insights in the years to come.On a more substantive point, the Newcastle team,like their predecessors in Cambridge, have successfullywidened the scope and reach of the journal (cf. P

Innovation and governance of rural territories

The idea that innovation or creativity can be the basis of the processes of development of territories has appeared only fairly recently in the literature and in public policies and actions. And it is only in the past few years that there has been an acceptance of the fact that new activities can be useful to – or even be drivers of – the growth of rural territories (Regional Science Policy and Practice, 2011). And yet, this approach is still usually confined to the high-technology or new economy sectors.