Andrea Blanchard

Community mobilization, empowerment and HIV prevention among female sex workers in south India

BackgroundWhile community mobilization has been widely endorsed as an important component of HIV prevention among vulnerable populations such as female sex workers (FSWs), there is uncertainty as to the mechanism through which it impacts upon HIV risk. We explored the hypothesis that individual and collective empowerment of FSW is an outcome of community mobilization, and we examined the means through which HIV risk and vulnerability reduction as well as personal and social transformation are achieved.MethodsThis study was conducted in five districts in south India, where community mobilization programs are implemented as part of the Avahan program (India AIDS Initiative) of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. We used a theoretically derived “integrated empowerment framework” to conduct a secondary analysis of a representative behavioural tracking survey conducted among 1,750 FSWs. We explored the associations between involvement with community mobilization programs, self-reported empowerment (defined as three domains including power within to represent self-esteem and confidence, power with as a measure of collective identity and solidarity, and power over as access to social entitlements, which were created using Principal Components analysis), and outcomes of HIV risk reduction and social transformation.ResultsIn multivariate analysis, we found that engagement with HIV programs and community mobilization activities was associated with the domains of empowerment. Power within and power with were positively associated with more program contact (p < .01 and p < .001 respectively). These measures of empowerment were also associated with outcomes of “personal transformation” in terms of self-efficacy for condom and health service use (p < .001). Collective empowerment (power with others) was most strongly associated with “social transformation” variables including higher autonomy and reduced violence and coercion, particularly in districts with programs of longer duration (p < .05). Condom use with clients was associated with power with others (p < .001), while power within was associated with more condom use with regular partners (p < .01) and higher service utilization (p < .05).ConclusionThese findings support the hypothesis that community mobilization has benefits for empowering FSWs both individually and collectively. HIV prevention is strengthened by improving their ability to address different psycho-social and community-level sources of their vulnerability. Future challenges include the need to develop social, political and legal contexts that support community mobilization of FSWs, and to prospectively measure the impact of combined community-level interventions on measures of empowerment as a means to HIV prevention.

Common Symptoms and Stressors Among Individuals With Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

BACKGROUND & AIMS We evaluated symptoms and stressful life events over a 1-year period in a population-based sample of persons with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). METHODS Participants from the University of Manitoba IBD Research Registry (n = 704) completed 5 surveys, given every 3 months for 1 year (552 completed all the surveys). Respondents were asked to indicate the specific gastrointestinal and other symptoms, if any, they had experienced in the previous 3-month period and to document any significant stressors experienced. The Manitoba IBD Index was used to categorize active versus inactive disease. RESULTS In any 3-month period, participants with Crohns disease, compared with those with ulcerative colitis (UC), reported more diarrhea (63% vs 38%), fatigue (54% vs 33%), abdominal pain (47% vs 32%), aching joints (42% vs 29%), painful joints (24% vs 16%), fever or night sweats (24% vs 15%), nausea/vomiting (18% vs 7%), and reductions in appetite (19% vs 11%) (P < .001 for each symptom). Individuals with ulcerative colitis complained more of stool mucous or blood than those with Crohns disease (27% vs 17%; P < .001). In periods of inactive disease, participants still experienced symptoms such as aching joints (17%), fatigue (15%), diarrhea (13%), or abdominal pain (9%). In any 3-month period, approximately 50% experienced some type of stress; family stress was the most commonly reported form, followed by work or school and financial stress. CONCLUSIONS Diarrhea and fatigue are the 2 most common symptoms of individuals with IBD. Those with inactive disease still report symptoms. Almost 50% of participants reported significant stress in any 3-month period, but the primary types were everyday life stressors more so than health-related stress.

Understanding the role of peer group membership in reducing HIV-related risk and vulnerability among female sex workers in Karnataka, India

In Karnataka state, South India, we analyzed the role of membership in peer groups in reducing HIV-related risk and vulnerability among female sex workers (FSWs). Data from three surveys conducted in Karnataka, a behavioral tracking survey and two rounds of integrated biological and behavioral assessments (IBBAs), were analyzed. Using propensity score matching, we examined the impact of group membership on selected outcomes, including condom use, experience of violence, access to entitlements, and the prevalence of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV infection. Focus group discussions were conducted with the FSWs to better understand their perceptions regarding membership in peer groups. Peer group members participating in the IBBAs had a lower prevalence of gonorrhea and/or chlamydia (5.2 vs 9.6%, p<0.001), and of syphilis (8.2 vs 10.3%, p<0.05), compared to non-members. The average treatment effect for selected outcome measures, from the propensity score matching, showed that FSWs who were members of any peer group reported significantly less experience of violence in the past six months, were less likely to have bribed police to avoid trouble in the past six months, and were more likely to have obtained at least one formal identification document in the past five years, compared to non-members. In focus group discussions, group members indicated that they had more confidence in dealing with situations of forced sex and violence. Including community mobilization and peer group formation in the context of HIV prevention programing can reduce HIV-related risk and vulnerability among FSWs.

An Exploration of Decision-Making Processes on Infant Delivery Site from the Perspective of Pregnant Women, New Mothers, and Their Families in Northern Karnataka, India

This study was conducted to explore the decision-making processes regarding sites for delivery of infants among women, their husbands, and mothers-in-law in a rural area of northern Karnataka state, south India. Qualitative semi-structured, individual in-depth interviews were conducted in 2010 among 110 pregnant women, new mothers, husbands and mothers-in-law. Interviews were conducted by trained local researchers in participants’ languages and then translated into English. Decisions were made relationally, as family members weighed their collective attitudes and experiences towards a home, private or public delivery. Patterns of both concordance and discordance between women and their families’ preferences for delivery site were present. The voice of pregnant women and new mothers was not always subordinate to that of other family members. Still, the involvement of husbands and mothers-in-law was important in decision-making, indicating the need to consider the influence of household gender and power dynamics. All respondent types also expressed shifts in social context and cultural attitudes towards increasing preference for hospital delivery. An appreciation of the interdependence of family members’ roles in delivery site decision-making, and how they are influenced by the socio-cultural context, must be considered in frameworks used to guide the development of relevant interventions to improve the utilization and quality of maternal, neonatal and child health services.

Oral health in a First Nations and a non-Aboriginal population in Manitoba

OBJECTIVES To analyze the prevalence of poor oral health and selected determinants in First Nations (FN) and Caucasian samples in Manitoba, Canada. STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional survey, nested in a cohort study. METHODS FN and Caucasian participants completed a questionnaire on socio-demographic variables, oral health symptoms, and oral health-related behaviours as part of a broader cohort study comparing these ethnic groups for different chronic immune mediated diseases. RESULTS Caucasians reported higher levels of employment, education, and urban dwelling than FNs (p<0.001). FNs reported smoking more, and having poorer oral health-related behaviours than Caucasians (p<0.001). After adjustment for age and sex, FN reported having more oral health symptoms than Caucasians (odds ratio (OR): 2.71; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.73, 4.52), but the association was reduced and not statistically significant after adjustment for other socio-demographic variables (OR=1.34; 95% CI: 0.58, 3.10). Oral health symptoms were associated with current smoking among FN (adjusted OR=2.67, 95% CI: 1.05, 6.78). Oral hygiene behaviours were significantly related to smoking status, rural living and education for both groups. CONCLUSIONS Oral health-related behaviours and smoking were found to be significant factors explaining poor oral health, which were lower for the FNs cohort than the Caucasian sample. However oral health and related behaviours were less related to their ethnicity than to socio-demographic factors, suggesting that policies to change behaviour will not result in lasting reductions in oral health differences between these groups in Manitoba.Objectives: To analyze the prevalence of poor oral health and selected determinants in First Nations (FN) and Caucasian samples in Manitoba, Canada. Study design: Cross-sectional survey, nested in a cohort study. Methods: FN and Caucasian participants completed a questionnaire on socio-demographic variables, oral health symptoms, and oral health-related behaviours as part of a broader cohort study comparing these ethnic groups for different chronic immune mediated diseases. Results: Caucasians reported higher levels of employment, education, and urban dwelling than FNs (p<0.001). FNs reported smoking more, and having poorer oral health-related behaviours than Caucasians (p<0.001). After adjustment for age and sex, FN reported having more oral health symptoms than Caucasians (odds ratio (OR): 2.71; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.73, 4.52), but the association was reduced and not statistically significant after adjustment for other socio-demographic variables (OR=1.34; 95% CI: 0.58, 3.10). Oral health symptoms were associated with current smoking among FN (adjusted OR=2.67, 95% CI: 1.05, 6.78). Oral hygiene behaviours were significantly related to smoking status, rural living and education for both groups. Conclusions: Oral health-related behaviours and smoking were found to be significant factors explaining poor oral health, which were lower for the FNs cohort than the Caucasian sample. However oral health and related behaviours were less related to their ethnicity than to socio-demographic factors, suggesting that policies to change behaviour will not result in lasting reductions in oral health differences between these groups in Manitoba.OBJECTIVES To analyze the prevalence of poor oral health and selected determinants in First Nations (FN) and Caucasian samples in Manitoba, Canada. STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional survey, nested in a cohort study. METHODS FN and Caucasian participants completed a questionnaire on socio-demographic variables, oral health symptoms, and oral health-related behaviours as part of a broader cohort study comparing these ethnic groups for different chronic immune mediated diseases. RESULTS Caucasians reported higher levels of employment, education, and urban dwelling than FNs (p<0.001). FNs reported smoking more, and having poorer oral health-related behaviours than Caucasians (p<0.001). After adjustment for age and sex, FN reported having more oral health symptoms than Caucasians (odds ratio (OR): 2.71; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.73, 4.52), but the association was reduced and not statistically significant after adjustment for other socio-demographic variables (OR=1.34; 95% CI: 0.58, 3.10). Oral health symptoms were associated with current smoking among FN (adjusted OR=2.67, 95% CI: 1.05, 6.78). Oral hygiene behaviours were significantly related to smoking status, rural living and education for both groups. CONCLUSIONS Oral health-related behaviours and smoking were found to be significant factors explaining poor oral health, which were lower for the FNs cohort than the Caucasian sample. However oral health and related behaviours were less related to their ethnicity than to socio-demographic factors, suggesting that policies to change behaviour will not result in lasting reductions in oral health differences between these groups in Manitoba.

Pursuing Authenticity From Process to Outcome in a Community-Based Participatory Research Study of Intimate Partner Violence and HIV Vulnerability in North Karnataka, India

Community-based participatory research has been seen to hold great promise by researchers aiming to bridge research and action in global health programs and practice. However, there is still much debate around whether achieving authenticity in terms of in-depth collaboration between community and academic partners is possible while pursuing academic expectations for quality. This article describes the community-based methodology for a qualitative study to explore intimate partner violence and HIV/AIDS among women in sex work, or female sex workers, and their male partners in Karnataka, South India. Developed through collaborative processes, the study methodology followed an interpretive approach to qualitative inquiry, with three key components including long-term partnerships, knowledge exchange, and orientation toward action. We then discuss lessons learned on how to pursue authenticity in terms of truly collaborative processes with inherent value that also contribute to, rather than hinder, the instrumental goal of enhancing the quality and relevance of the research outcomes.

A community-based qualitative study on the experience and understandings of intimate partner violence and HIV vulnerability from the perspectives of female sex workers and male intimate partners in North Karnataka state, India

BackgroundResearch has increasingly documented the important role that violence by clients and the police play in exacerbating HIV vulnerability for women in sex work. However few studies have examined violence in the intimate relationships of women in sex work, or drawn on community partnerships to explore the social dynamics involved. A community-based participatory research study was undertaken by community and academic partners leading intimate partner violence (IPV) and HIV prevention programs in Bagalkot district, Karnataka state, India. The purpose was to explore the experience and understandings of intimate partner violence and HIV/AIDS among women in sex work and their intimate partners in Bagalkot that would inform both theory and practice.MethodsA community-based, interpretive qualitative methodology was used. Data was collected between July and October 2014 through in-depth interviews with 38 participants, including 10 couples, 13 individual female sex workers, and 5 individual male intimate partners. Purposive sampling was done to maximize variation on socio-demographic characteristics. Thematic content analysis was conducted through coding and categorization for each interview question in NVivo 10.0, followed by collaborative analysis to answer the research questions.ResultsThe results showed that an array of interrelated, multi-level factors underlay the widespread acceptance and perpetuation of violence and lack of condom use in participants’ intimate relationships. These included individual expectations that justified violence and reflected societal gender norms, compounded by stigma, legal and economic constraints relating to sex work. The results demonstrate that structural vulnerability to IPV and HIV must be addressed not only on the individual and relationship levels to resolve relevant triggers of violence and lack of condom use, but also the societal-level to address gender norms and socio-economic constraints among women in sex work and their partners.ConclusionThe study contributes to a better understanding on the interplay of individual agency and structural forces at a time when researchers and program planners are increasingly pondering how best to address complex and intersecting social and health issues. Ongoing research should assess the generalizability of the results and the effectiveness of structural interventions aiming to reduce IPV and HIV vulnerability in other contexts.

Changes in HIV prevention programme outcomes among key populations in Kenya: Data from periodic surveys

The Kenya National AIDS and STI Control Programme (NASCOP) conducted annual polling booth surveys (PBS) in 2014 and 2015 to measure outcomes from the national HIV prevention programme for key populations (KPs), comprising behavioural, biomedical and structural interventions. KPs included female sex workers (FSWs), men who have sex with men (MSM) and people who inject drugs (PWID). We compared survey results from the first and second rounds. Comparing the second to the first round, significantly more FSWs (93% vs. 88%, p<0.001) and MSM (77% vs. 58%, p<0.001) reported condom use at last sex with a paying client, and at last anal sex among MSM (80% vs. 77%, p<0.05) and PWID (48% vs. 27%, p<0.01). However, condom use with regular partners remained low, at less than 53% for FSWs and 69% for MSM. Among PWID, there was a significant increase in use of new needles and syringes at last injection (93% vs. 88%, p<0.001), and a significant decrease in reported non-availability of clean needles (23% vs. 36%, p<0.001). The number of overdoses in the past six months reduced significantly but remained high (40% vs. 51%, p<0.001). FSWs and MSM reported significantly higher HIV testing, and in all KP groups, over 93% reported ever having been tested for HIV. Among the respondents self-reporting to have tested HIV positive (24% of FSW, 22% of MSM and 19% of PWID), 80% of FSWs, 70% of MSM, and 73% of PWID reported currently taking antiretroviral therapy (ART). While the experience of forced intercourse by partners declined among FSWs (18% vs. 22%, p<0.01) and MSM (13% vs. 17%, p<0.01), more FSWs reported violence by law enforcement personnel (49% vs. 44%, p<0.001). These findings provide valuable information on the programme’s progress, and a signpost for the integrated behavioural, biomedical and structural interventions to achieve their HIV prevention targets.

Effects of Exposure to an Intensive HIV-prevention Programme on Behavioural Changes among Female Sex Workers in Nairobi, Kenya

While Kenya has had a long-standing national HIV-prevention programme, evidence on the level of exposure to its interventions and related effects on behavioural changes among female sex workers (FSWs) is limited. Using cross-sectional behavioural data collected in 2013 from 1 357 FSWs aged 18 years and above in Nairobi, Kenya, this study explores the relationship between FSW programme exposure levels and behavioural outcomes including condom use, sexually transmitted infection (STI)-treatment, and empowerment measures like disclosure of self-identity and violence reporting. We categorised programme exposure levels as none, moderate and intensive. Multivariate logistic regression was used for analysis. Overall, 35% of the FSWs were not exposed to any HIV prevention programme, whereas about 24% had moderate and 41% had intensive exposure. FSWs having intensive programme exposure had a higher likelihood of using condoms consistently with occasional clients (AOR: 1.57; 95% CI: 1.08–2.31) and seeking treatment for STIs (AOR: 3.37; 95% CI: 1.63–7.02) compared to FSWs with no or moderate exposure. Intensive programme exposure was also associated with higher self-disclosure of sex-work identity (AOR: 1.63; 95% CI: 1.19–2.24), reporting of violence to police (AOR: 2.45; 95% CI: 1.03–5.84), and negotiation of condom use at last sex when the client was under the influence of alcohol (AOR: 1.63; 95% CI: 0.94–2.82). Although HIV prevention programmes in Kenya have been underway for over a decade, programme efforts were largely focused on saturating the coverage (intervention breadth). Strategies should now focus on ensuring improved quality of contacts through intensified programme exposure (intervention depth) to enhance gains in behavioural change among FSWs and preventing the burden of HIV infection among them.