Andrea J. Romero

The Structure of Ethnic Identity of Young Adolescents from Diverse Ethnocultural Groups

The purpose for this study was to examine the structure and construct validity of a measure of ethnic identity among young adolescents from diverse ethnic groups. Students in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades (N = 5,423) from diverse ethnic groups completed the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM), measures of psychological well-being and a measure of salience of ethnicity. Factor analyses of data for the three largest ethnic groups (European American, African American, Mexican American) yielded a two-factor structure that corresponded to two theoretical approaches to ethnic identity, as hypothesized. Similar patterns in magnitude of loadings were observed across groups, indicating that the MEIM could be used as a global composite index of ethnic identity. Ethnic identity was related positively to measures of psychological well-being such as coping ability, mastery, self-esteem and optimism, and negatively to measures of loneliness and depression. MEIM scores also were moderately strong and positive with salience (the importance of a person’s own ethnic background in his or her life), across ethnic groups.

Bicultural Stress and Adolescent Risk Behaviors in a Community Sample of Latinos and Non-Latino European Americans

Objectives . The study examined the relation between adolescent risk behaviors and bicultural stress due to discrimination, immigration, and acculturation factors. We hypothesized bicultural stress would be related to increased risk behavior and depressive symptoms independent of socioeconomic status, ethnic self-identification, and acculturation. Design . Middle school student participants (n=519; median age 14) completed a self-report questionnaire on their risk behaviors, psychosocial antecedents, and socio-demographic factors. Latino (304) and non-Latino European American (215) students were surveyed through a large, urban, West Coast US school district. Results . More bicultural stress was significantly related to reports of all risk behaviors (i.e. smoking, drinking, drug use, and violence) and depressive symptoms. Further, bicultural stress was a robust explanatory variable across sub-groups, and appears largely independent from depressive symptoms. Conclusion . The hypotheses were supported. Bicultural stress appears to be an important underlying factor for health disparities among US adolescents. Future research may consider promoting well-being in majority, as well as minority adolescents, through targeting sources of bicultural stressors or examining ways to moderate their effects on adolescent risk behaviors.

Associations among familism, language preference, and education in Mexican-American mothers and their children

Latino families who express a higher degree of familism are characterized by positive interpersonal familial relationships, high family unity, social support, interdependence in the completion of daily activities, and close proximity with extended family members. Retention of cultural values, such as familism, may be linked to positive health outcomes; however, little is known about how families retain culture of origin values in the face of acculturation pressures. The current study explores acculturation influences as indexed by language preference and household education on maternal and child familism. Mothers and children of Mexican descent (fourth grade students) (n = 219) completed measures of demographics, household education, language preference, and familism. Three hypotheses were examined. First, we predicted that lower household education would be correlated with higher familism scores. However, contrary to our prediction, a higher familism score was significantly associated with a higher level of household education (p < .05). Second, we predicted that higher child familism would be associated with the preference for speaking Spanish. Children who preferred to use both English and Spanish (p < .01) or English alone (p < .05) had higher familism scores than those who preferred Spanish. Third, we predicted that lower child familism scores would be associated with greater differences in mother and child language preferences. There were no significant differences in child familism based on differences between parent and child language. Protective influences of cultural maintenance deserve further attention in longitudinal studies and in relation to the physical and mental health of youth.

What Does It Mean to Be “Mexican”? Social Construction of an Ethnic Identity

To better understand the impact of ethnic identity, it is important to examine people’s social construction, or definition, of that identity. In this study, the social construction of ethnic identity of predominantly low-acculturated, first-and second-generation U.S. Mexicans and Mexican Americans was examined by asking focus group participants to talk about what it meant to them to be members of their ethnic groups. These open-ended responses then were coded along Phinney’s aspects of ethnicity. Several interesting patterns emerged, some of which have not been emphasized in previous literature, such as conflict with African Americans and Chicanas/Chicanos. Discussion centers on the value of listening to people’s social constructions of their ethnic identity to better understand their social realities.

Ethnocultural variables and attitudes toward cultural socialization of children

■Cultural socialization is the transmission of cultural values and norms to one’s children. The current study presents a new scale to assess parental socialization attitudes to both the U.S. American culture and the Latino culture. The scale is based on a social cognitive model of cultural socialization and cultural values of independence and interdependence. It was hypothesized that individuals who have lower acculturation, more recent generation level, and higher Mexican identity would have higher scores on the Latino cultural socialization scale and lower scores on the U.S. American cultural socialization scale. A sample of parents who were college students completed a survey, which included ethnocultural variables and the cultural socialization scale (CSS). A MANOVA with criterion variables, U.S. American cultural socialization and Latino cultural socialization, and the following predictor variables: acculturation level, generation level, Mexican identity, White American identity, and socioeconomic status. Results indicate that the scale is reliable and partially support the hypotheses that ethnocultural variables influence attitudes toward cultural socialization ARTICLE

Effects of Cultural Orientation on the Perception of Conflict between Relationship and Education Goals for Mexican American College Students.

Cultural factors internal to the ethnic group may exacerbate external and economic barriers to the pursuit of higher education for Mexican American students. In particular, cultural variables related to traditional, relationship-oriented behaviors and expectations may be perceived to conflict with educational pursuits. The present study examined the relationship between components of cultural orientation and attitudes and values that may create tension between relationship and educational goals for Mexican American men and women. Results of a survey that assessed cultural orientation and marriage and gender role attitudes of Mexican Americans (female, N = 356; male, N = 200) indicated that the ethnic-loyalty component of cultural orientation most consistently predicted adherence to beliefs that may lead to the perception of conflict between relationship and educational goals. Discussion centers on the role of ethnic loyalty as a risk factor for Mexican American men’s and women’s decisions to pursue and complete higher education.

Depressive symptoms and externalizing behaviors among Hispanic immigrant adolescents: examining longitudinal effects of cultural stress

This study examined longitudinal effects of cultural stress (a latent factor comprised of bicultural stress, ethnic discrimination, and negative context of reception) on depressive symptoms and a range of externalizing behaviors among recently (≤5 years in the U.S. at baseline) immigrated Hispanic adolescents. A sample of 302 adolescents (53% boys; mean age 14.51 years) completed baseline measures of perceived ethnic discrimination, bicultural stress, and perceived negative context of reception; and outcome measures of depressive symptoms, cigarette smoking, alcohol use, aggressive behavior, and rule-breaking behavior six months post-baseline. A path analysis indicated that higher cultural stress scores predicted higher levels of all outcomes. These effects were consistent across genders, but varied by study site. Specifically, higher cultural stress scores increased depressive symptoms among participants in Miami, but not in Los Angeles. Findings suggest that cultural stress is a clinically relevant predictor of depressive symptoms and externalizing behaviors among Hispanic immigrant adolescents.

Latina Teen Suicide and Bullying.

Latina adolescents experience depression and suicidal ideations in a disproportionate manner compared to their non-Latina counterparts. We investigate suicide and depressive symptoms among a state-wide sample (N = 650) of adolescent Latina girls with a focus on bullying as a predictor. Bullying rates are higher than previous studies have found for victimization at school (23%), cybervictimization (26%), school bully (18%), and cyberbully (18%). Rates for depressive symptoms (49%), suicide ideation (23%), suicide plan (17%), and suicide attempt(s; 13%) are higher than national averages. After controlling for depressive symptoms, girls who have been bullied were 1.5 times more likely to attempt suicide compared to girls who have not been victims. However, being a bully increased likelihood of suicide ideation (1.5) and suicide plan (1.4) compared to not being a bully. There is a continued need to prevent depressive symptoms and suicide among Latina girls and to further investigate the effects of bullying.

Assessing and Treating Latinos: Overview of Research

Publisher Summary This chapter presents an overview of research on cultural theories and mental health in the Latino community. Discussion argues that current conceptualizations of cultural models may help the mental health services communities move beyond stereotypes and oversimplifications of the Latino culture. The measurement of cultural constructs is discussed in order to understand how to assess individuals as cultural beings. Further, recommendations for when and how to tailor diagnosis and treatment to be culturally appropriate are provided. The chapter also argues that culture is a social element that permeates every aspect of an individual, and so, it is crucial to understand culture and its influences. Moreover, if one is to be guided by a truly comprehensive biopsychosocial model of health research, one needs to begin to take into account not only the patients, but also their social context, such as socioeconomic and sociocultural stressors. Individual, group, and cultural differences should be an essential and systematic aspect of applying principles of human behavior to promote wellness.

The Border Community and Immigration Stress Scale: A Preliminary Examination of a Community Responsive Measure in Two Southwest Samples

Understanding contemporary socio-cultural stressors may assist educational, clinical and policy-level health promotion efforts. This study presents descriptive findings on a new measure, the border community and immigration stress scale. The data were from two community surveys as part of community based participatory projects conducted in the Southwestern US border region. This scale includes stressful experiences reflected in extant measures, with new items reflecting heightened local migration pressures and health care barriers. Stressors representing each main domain, including novel ones, were reported with frequency and at high intensity in the predominantly Mexican-descent samples. Total stress was also significantly associated with mental and physical health indicators. The study suggests particularly high health burdens tied to the experience of stressors in the US border region. Further, many of the stressors are also likely relevant for other communities within developed nations also experiencing high levels of migration.