Andrea L. Meredith

Local potassium signaling couples neuronal activity to vasodilation in the brain

The mechanisms by which active neurons, via astrocytes, rapidly signal intracerebral arterioles to dilate remain obscure. Here we show that modest elevation of extracellular potassium (K+) activated inward rectifier K+ (Kir) channels and caused membrane potential hyperpolarization in smooth muscle cells (SMCs) of intracerebral arterioles and, in cortical brain slices, induced Kir-dependent vasodilation and suppression of SMC intracellular calcium (Ca2+) oscillations. Neuronal activation induced a rapid (<2 s latency) vasodilation that was greatly reduced by Kir channel blockade and completely abrogated by concurrent cyclooxygenase inhibition. Astrocytic endfeet exhibited large-conductance, Ca2+-sensitive K+ (BK) channel currents that could be activated by neuronal stimulation. Blocking BK channels or ablating the gene encoding these channels prevented neuronally induced vasodilation and suppression of arteriolar SMC Ca2+, without affecting the astrocytic Ca2+ elevation. These results support the concept of intercellular K+ channel–to–K+ channel signaling, through which neuronal activity in the form of an astrocytic Ca2+ signal is decoded by astrocytic BK channels, which locally release K+ into the perivascular space to activate SMC Kir channels and cause vasodilation.

Alterations in cardiac gene expression during the transition from stable hypertrophy to heart failure. Marked upregulation of genes encoding extracellular matrix components.

The failing heart is characterized by impaired cardiac muscle function and increased interstitial fibrosis. Our purpose was to determine whether the functional impairment of the failing heart is associated with changes in levels of mRNA encoding proteins that modulate parameters of contraction and relaxation and whether the increased fibrosis observed in the failing heart is related to elevated expression of genes encoding extracellular matrix components. We studied hearts of 18- to 24-month-old spontaneously hypertensive rats with signs and symptoms of heart failure (SHR-F) or without evidence of failure (SHR-NF) and of age-matched normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats. Compared with WKY rats, SHR-NF exhibited left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy (2.2-fold) and right ventricular (RV) hypertrophy (1.5-fold), whereas SHR-F were characterized by comparable LV hypertrophy (2.1-fold) and augmented RV hypertrophy (2.4-fold; all P < .01). Total RNA was isolated from ventricles and subjected to Northern blot analysis. In SHR-F hearts, the level of alpha-myosin heavy chain mRNA was decreased in both ventricles to 1/3 and 1/5 of the SHR-NF and WKY values, respectively (both P < .01). Levels of beta-myosin heavy chain, alpha-cardiac actin, and myosin light chain-2 mRNAs were not significantly altered in hearts of SHR-NF or SHR-F. Levels of alpha-skeletal actin were twofold greater in SHR-NF hearts compared with WKY hearts and were intermediate in SHR-F hearts. Levels of atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) mRNA were elevated threefold in the LV of SHR-NF (P < .05) but were not significantly increased in the RV of SHR-NF compared with WKY rats. During the transition to failure (SHR-F versus SHR-NF), ANF mRNA levels increased an additional 1.6-fold in the LV and were elevated 4.7-fold in the RV (both P < .05). Levels of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase (SRCA) mRNA were maintained in the LV of hypertensive and failing hearts at levels not significantly different from WKY values. In contrast, the level of RV SRCA mRNA was 24% less in SHR-NF compared with WKY rats, and during the transition to failure, this difference was not significantly exacerbated (29% less than the WKY value). The levels of fibronectin and pro-alpha 1(I) and pro-alpha 1(III) collagen mRNAs were not significantly elevated in either ventricle of the SHR-NF group but were fourfold to fivefold higher in both ventricles of SHR-F (all P < .05).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

BK calcium-activated potassium channels regulate circadian behavioral rhythms and pacemaker output

Spontaneous action potentials in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) are necessary for normal circadian timing of behavior in mammals. The SCN exhibits a daily oscillation in spontaneous firing rate (SFR), but the ionic conductances controlling SFR and the relationship of SFR to subsequent circadian behavioral rhythms are not understood. We show that daily expression of the large conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel (BK) in the SCN is controlled by the intrinsic circadian clock. BK channel–null mice (Kcnma1−/−) have increased SFRs in SCN neurons selectively at night and weak circadian amplitudes in multiple behaviors timed by the SCN. Kcnma1−/− mice show normal expression of clock genes such as Arntl (Bmal1), indicating a role for BK channels in SCN pacemaker output, rather than in intrinsic time-keeping. Our findings implicate BK channels as important regulators of the SFR and suggest that the SCN pacemaker governs the expression of circadian behavioral rhythms through SFR modulation.

Astrocytic endfoot Ca2+ and BK channels determine both arteriolar dilation and constriction

Neuronal activity is thought to communicate to arterioles in the brain through astrocytic calcium (Ca2+) signaling to cause local vasodilation. Paradoxically, this communication may cause vasoconstriction in some cases. Here, we show that, regardless of the mechanism by which astrocytic endfoot Ca2+ was elevated, modest increases in Ca2+ induced dilation, whereas larger increases switched dilation to constriction. Large-conductance, Ca2+-sensitive potassium channels in astrocytic endfeet mediated a majority of the dilation and the entire vasoconstriction, implicating local extracellular K+ as a vasoactive signal for both dilation and constriction. These results provide evidence for a unifying mechanism that explains the nature and apparent duality of the vascular response, showing that the degree and polarity of neurovascular coupling depends on astrocytic endfoot Ca2+ and perivascular K+.

Correct coordination of neuronal differentiation events in ventral forebrain requires the bHLH factor MASH1.

MASH1 is a bHLH transcription factor specifically expressed in the developing nervous system that has an essential role in the formation of multiple neuronal lineages in the peripheral and central nervous systems. Here we demonstrate the requirement for MASH1 for normal development of ventral forebrain structures. MASH1 is expressed at high levels in the ventral telencephalon and specific regions within the ventral diencepharon. In the absence of MASH1, tissue morphology, proliferation, and gene expression within these forebrain regions is disrupted. The decreased incorporation of BrdU in the neuro-epithelium and the enlargement of the ventricles demonstrate a reduction in cell proliferation. A loss of anatomically distinct lateral and medial ganglionic eminences, and a disruption of axons traversing this region, indicate abnormalities in cell-type specification. The aberrant expression of Tuj-1, a marker of neuronal differentiation in the neuroepithelium, and Dlx, a marker of regional cell identity, in the ventricular zone in the MASH1 mutant brains suggest coordination of differentiation events is disrupted. In addition, the involvement of MASH1 in lateral inhibition processes that affect the development of these forebrain regions is implicated. Taken together, an essential role for MASH1 in the coordination of events required for correct cell-type specification and timing of differentiation during neural development in ventral forebrain regions is demonstrated.

Erectile dysfunction in mice lacking the large-conductance calcium-activated potassium (BK) channel

Penile erection is dependent on the nitric oxide (NO)/cGMP‐dependent protein kinase I (PKGI) pathway. One important target of PKGI in smooth muscle is the large‐conductance, calcium‐activated potassium (BK) channel, which upon activation hyperpolarizes the smooth muscle cell membrane, causing relaxation. Relaxation of arterial and corpus cavernosum smooth muscle (CCSM) is necessary to increase blood flow into the corpora cavernosa that leads to penile tumescence. We investigated the functional role of BK channels in the corpus cavernosum utilizing a knock‐out mouse lacking the Slo gene (Slo−/−) responsible for the pore‐forming subunit of the BK channel. Whole‐cell currents were recorded from isolated CCSM cells of Slo+/+ and Slo−/− mice. Iberiotoxin‐sensitive voltage‐ and [Ca2+]‐activated K+ currents, the latter activated by local transient calcium releases (calcium sparks), were present in Slo+/+ CCSM cells, but absent in Slo−/− cells. CCSM strips from Slo−/− mice demonstrated a four‐fold increase in phasic contractions, in the presence of phenylephrine. Nerve‐evoked relaxations of precontracted strips were reduced by 50%, both in strips from Slo−/− mice and by blocking BK channels with iberiotoxin in the Slo+/+ strips. Consistent with the in vitro results, in vivo intracavernous pressure exhibited pronounced oscillations in Slo−/− mice, but not in Slo+/+ mice. Furthermore, intracavernous pressure increases to nerve stimulation, in vivo, were reduced by 22% in Slo−/−mice. These results indicate that the BK channel has an important role in erectile function, and loss of the BK channel leads to erectile dysfunction.

Immunolocalization of the Ca2+-Activated K+ Channel Slo1 in Axons and Nerve Terminals of Mammalian Brain and Cultured Neurons

Ca2+‐activated voltage‐dependent K+ channels (Slo1, KCa1.1, Maxi‐K, or BK channel) play a crucial role in controlling neuronal signaling by coupling channel activity to both membrane depolarization and intracellular Ca2+ signaling. In mammalian brain, immunolabeling experiments have shown staining for Slo1 channels predominantly localized to axons and presynaptic terminals of neurons. We have developed anti‐Slo1 mouse monoclonal antibodies that have been extensively characterized for specificity of staining against recombinant Slo1 in heterologous cells, and native Slo1 in mammalian brain, and definitively by the lack of detectable immunoreactivity against brain samples from Slo1 knockout mice. Here we provide precise immunolocalization of Slo1 in rat brain with one of these monoclonal antibodies and show that Slo1 is accumulated in axons and synaptic terminal zones associated with glutamatergic synapses in hippocampus and GABAergic synapses in cerebellum. By using cultured hippocampal pyramidal neurons as a model system, we show that heterologously expressed Slo1 is initially targeted to the axonal surface membrane, and with further development in culture, become localized in presynaptic terminals. These studies provide new insights into the polarized localization of Slo1 channels in mammalian central neurons and provide further evidence for a key role in regulating neurotransmitter release in glutamatergic and GABAergic terminals. J. Comp. Neurol. 496:289–302, 2006.

Erectile dysfunction in mice lacking in large conductance calcium-activated (BK) channel

Penile erection is dependent on the nitric oxide (NO)/cGMP‐dependent protein kinase I (PKGI) pathway. One important target of PKGI in smooth muscle is the large‐conductance, calcium‐activated potassium (BK) channel, which upon activation hyperpolarizes the smooth muscle cell membrane, causing relaxation. Relaxation of arterial and corpus cavernosum smooth muscle (CCSM) is necessary to increase blood flow into the corpora cavernosa that leads to penile tumescence. We investigated the functional role of BK channels in the corpus cavernosum utilizing a knock‐out mouse lacking the Slo gene (Slo−/−) responsible for the pore‐forming subunit of the BK channel. Whole‐cell currents were recorded from isolated CCSM cells of Slo+/+ and Slo−/− mice. Iberiotoxin‐sensitive voltage‐ and [Ca2+]‐activated K+ currents, the latter activated by local transient calcium releases (calcium sparks), were present in Slo+/+ CCSM cells, but absent in Slo−/− cells. CCSM strips from Slo−/− mice demonstrated a four‐fold increase in phasic contractions, in the presence of phenylephrine. Nerve‐evoked relaxations of precontracted strips were reduced by 50%, both in strips from Slo−/− mice and by blocking BK channels with iberiotoxin in the Slo+/+ strips. Consistent with the in vitro results, in vivo intracavernous pressure exhibited pronounced oscillations in Slo−/− mice, but not in Slo+/+ mice. Furthermore, intracavernous pressure increases to nerve stimulation, in vivo, were reduced by 22% in Slo−/−mice. These results indicate that the BK channel has an important role in erectile function, and loss of the BK channel leads to erectile dysfunction.

mitoBKCa is encoded by the Kcnma1 gene, and a splicing sequence defines its mitochondrial location

The large-conductance Ca2+- and voltage-activated K+ channel (BKCa, MaxiK), which is encoded by the Kcnma1 gene, is generally expressed at the plasma membrane of excitable and nonexcitable cells. However, in adult cardiomyocytes, a BKCa-like channel activity has been reported in the mitochondria but not at the plasma membrane. The putative opening of this channel with the BKCa agonist, NS1619, protects the heart from ischemic insult. However, the molecular origin of mitochondrial BKCa (mitoBKCa) is unknown because its linkage to Kcnma1 has been questioned on biochemical and molecular grounds. Here, we unequivocally demonstrate that the molecular correlate of mitoBKCa is the Kcnma1 gene, which produces a protein that migrates at ∼140 kDa and arranges in clusters of ∼50 nm in purified mitochondria. Physiological experiments further support the origin of mitoBKCa as a Kcnma1 product because NS1619-mediated cardioprotection was absent in Kcnma1 knockout mice. Finally, BKCa transcript analysis and expression in adult cardiomyocytes led to the discovery of a 50-aa C-terminal splice insert as essential for the mitochondrial targeting of mitoBKCa.

Quantitative Localization of Cav2.1 (P/Q-Type) Voltage-Dependent Calcium Channels in Purkinje Cells: Somatodendritic Gradient and Distinct Somatic Coclustering with Calcium-Activated Potassium Channels

P/Q-type voltage-dependent calcium channels play key roles in transmitter release, integration of dendritic signals, generation of dendritic spikes, and gene expression. High intracellular calcium concentration transient produced by these channels is restricted to tens to hundreds of nanometers from the channels. Therefore, precise localization of these channels along the plasma membrane was long sought to decipher how each neuronal cell function is controlled. Here, we analyzed the distribution of Cav2.1 subunit of the P/Q-type channel using highly sensitive SDS-digested freeze-fracture replica labeling in the rat cerebellar Purkinje cells. The labeling efficiency was such that the number of immunogold particles in each parallel fiber active zone was comparable to that of functional channels calculated from previous reports. Two distinct patterns of Cav2.1 distribution, scattered and clustered, were found in Purkinje cells. The scattered Cav2.1 had a somatodendritic gradient with the density of immunogold particles increasing 2.5-fold from soma to distal dendrites. The other population with 74-fold higher density than the scattered particles was found within clusters of intramembrane particles on the P-face of soma and primary dendrites. Both populations of Cav2.1 were found as early as P3 and increased in the second postnatal week to a mature level. Using double immunogold labeling, we found that virtually all of the Cav2.1 clusters were colocalized with two types of calcium-activated potassium channels, BK and SK2, with the nearest neighbor distance of ∼40 nm. Calcium nanodomain created by the opening of Cav2.1 channels likely activates the two channels that limit the extent of depolarization.