Andrea L. Ruppar

Policy and the Impact on Placement, Involvement, and Progress in General Education: Critical Issues That Require Rectification.

Students with significant disabilities continue to be among the most segregated in schools. In this article, we argue that the principles of least restrictive environment and involvement and progress in the general curriculum have been interpreted in ways that perpetuate segregation, rather than increasing students’ access to meaningful curriculum in inclusive educational contexts. We examine this issue from three broad perspectives: federal policy related to least restrictive environment, interpretations of policies related to involvement and progress in the general curriculum, and the implementation of policies related to assessment of grade-level standards. We discuss implications of each of these issues for providing and increasing involvement and progress in general education contexts and content.

Individualized Education Program Team Decisions: A Preliminary Study of Conversations, Negotiations, and Power

Given the centrality of the Individualized Education Program (IEP) to services for students with disabilities, the decision-making process during the IEP meeting deserves attention in research and implementation. In this case study, IEP team decision-making is examined as a socially situated practice. Transcripts of an initial evaluation and IEP meeting and subsequent interviews with team members were analyzed in concert with the pertinent documents to understand the decision-making process and outcomes for a 5-year-old boy. The students diagnosis, placement, and goal setting resulted in discussion and were pursued in postmeeting interviews. Further analysis was conducted regarding the proportion of interactions among participants. Results indicate that the turn-taking structure of the IEP meeting, the IEP template, and communication prior to the meeting influenced the decisions, and individual team members held opinions that they did not voice during the meeting.

Influences on Teachers’ Decisions About Literacy for Secondary Students With Severe Disabilities

The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the influences on special education teachers’ decisions about literacy for their students with severe disabilities. With the use of multiple case study and grounded theory methodologies, four middle and high school special education teachers were purposefully selected to participate in interviews and videotaped observations. Transcripts and videos were analyzed in concert with documents, such as individualized education programs and teaching materials, using constant comparative analysis. Four key influences were identified that guided literacy decisions: (a) contexts; (b) beliefs about students, teaching, and learning; (c) expectations; and (d) self-efficacy. These four components form the basis for a preliminary theoretical framework of teacher decision making about literacy for students with severe disabilities.

Faculty Perceptions of Expertise among Teachers of Students with Severe Disabilities.

Given recent increased attention to teacher evaluation, it is imperative to understand the expertise teachers need to educate students with severe disabilities. In this grounded theory study, the authors interviewed nine special education faculty who specialize in severe disabilities about the job-related skills and qualities exhibited by expert teachers of students with severe disabilities. The results indicate that in addition to systematic and student-centered instruction, expert teachers of students with severe disabilities are guided by a set of non-negotiable principles regarding inclusion and the dignity and value of students with severe disabilities. Implications for teacher preparation and evaluation are discussed.

Immersing Students in the Culture of Disability Through Service Learning

This article provides a description of service learning implemented in an introductory special education course focused on the culture of disability. Collaborating with liaisons from five community service organizations, students provided services to individuals with disabilities in a variety of projects across two semesters. Communication and collaboration at all phases of the project were essential to ensuring that service learning was salient to the organization and meaningful to the students. The students presented a final report about their service-learning project and individually submitted a paper reflecting on their experience. Pre- and post-ratings of students’ perspectives of the culture of disability were gathered. Students reported increased knowledge related to course content, and all participants reported satisfaction with the projects. Strategies that proved successful in assisting students accomplish their project goals are discussed. Recommendations for the use of service learning in personnel preparation of future special educators are presented.

Ecological Factors Affecting Access to General Education Content and Contexts for Students With Significant Disabilities

In this review, we applied Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory to examine factors that support or restrict access to the general curriculum for students with significant disabilities. We organize the literature in relationship to factors within the micro-, meso-, macro-, exo-, and chronosystems that influence decisions about access to the general curriculum for individual students. We discuss these factors in relationship to placement, instructional contexts, and instructional content. Implications for research and practice are provided.

Five Steps for Developing Effective Transition Plans for High School Students With Autism Spectrum Disorder

Lakeview High School is a mediumsized high school in a rural farming community. The staff at Lakeview meets at the beginning of each school year to discuss building-level professional development plans. This year, Lakeview’s special education team has requested to focus its professional development time on improving special education services for students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The team is seeing an increasing number of students with ASD who are highly skilled academically yet have complex needs around social behavior, selfmanagement, and independent living—skills necessary for success in postsecondary environments. The team recognizes that this type of instruction does not seem to fit easily in the existing high school schedule, and the goals that the teachers write to increase student self-management skills and develop social awareness are difficult to implement. Yet, given the importance of these social, emotional, and communication skills, the team plans to work together to develop better programming for its students with ASD. The Challenge of Transition Planning and IEPs for Students With ASD

A Preliminary Study of the Literacy Experiences of Adolescents With Severe Disabilities

Seventy-five literacy activities of eight middle and high school students with severe disabilities were analyzed in terms of the literacy content, materials used, student engagement, and contexts, including location and instructional arrangement. Coded observations, review of teaching materials, and follow-up teacher interviews and questionnaires revealed that students spent a disproportionate amount of time passively engaged in reading activities (i.e., listening without the opportunity to respond) in one-to-one instructional arrangements located in self-contained classes. Active engagement in written and spoken expressive communication was underemphasized. Worksheets and picture symbols were the most often-used materials. Activities rarely occurred in the natural setting for use of the literacy skill, or with the materials that would be used under natural circumstances. Findings are discussed in relationship to research-based practices.

Authentic Literacy and Communication in Inclusive Settings for Students with Significant Disabilities

ninth grade at her neighborhood school. She is learning to communicate by using two-step switch scanning on a voice-output communication aid (VOCA) and can also use partnerassisted scanning to make choices. With a combination of eye gaze, partner-assisted scanning, and her VOCA, she participates in the activities of her school community. She is learning to drive her electric wheelchair and access a classroom computer to engage with text during academic activities. As a member of the school community, she attends student council meetings, participates in elective classes, and socializes with her peers in and out of school. Her educational team has ensured that she has opportunities to make choices, chat, read, or write during each activity. Because of her team’s intentional planning, Carmen’s literacy skills have increased. As a result, she has even more opportunities to participate in activities with her peers. Jeremiah, who is 7 years old, is also learning to use a VOCA and electric wheelchair. His classroom teacher and special education teacher collaborate to modify and adapt the curriculum so that he can fully participate in his second-grade class. For example, during a cross-curricular unit on Arctic animals, Jeremiah read computeradapted versions of several of the books and answered comprehension questions. He researched polar bears at his local library, used assistive technology to create a poster, presented his project to the class using his VOCA, and answered questions from his classmates and teachers. Outside the classroom, he is enjoying the typical activities of a second-grader at his neighborhood school. He greets and socializes with his friends in the hallway. He played a valued role in the school’s music performance as the announcer and master of ceremonies. As a member of the school’s ecology club, he uses assistive technology to help write a quarterly newsletter and create posters encouraging teachers and students to recycle. Like Carmen’s team, Jeremiah’s team has intentionally planned his school experiences to include multiple opportunities to read, write, listen, and speak throughout the day. As a result, Jeremiah has a rich academic and social life. Reading, writing, listening, and speaking are four essential components of literacy (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). We read because we want to understand what a text has to offer; we speak and write because we have something important to say to someone else. As Duke, Caughlan, Juzwik, and Martin (2012) point out, learning improves and becomes deeper through purposeful and authentic activities. Moreover, teaching becomes more interesting and invigorating when students engage in tasks of genuine importance (Duke et al., 2012). Unfortunately, many students with significant disabilities are not accessing literacy learning within meaningful and purposeful contexts.

Perceptions About Expert Teaching for Students With Severe Disabilities Among Teachers Identified as Experts

Teaching students with severe disabilities is a complex endeavor, and the skills and qualities of expert teachers for students with severe disabilities are not well understood. A lack of understanding about the unique roles and expertise of teachers of students with severe disabilities can influence the quality of education students with severe disabilities receive and can also affect teacher preparation, development, and evaluation. In this qualitative study, the authors interviewed 11 teachers of students with severe disabilities identified as expert teachers about their perceptions of expertise in relationship to teaching students with severe disabilities. The findings suggest that expert teachers of students with severe disabilities were perceived to demonstrate four core skills and four core qualities that are evident in their actions inside and outside of their classrooms. The four skills identified are (a) advocacy, (b) systematic instruction and academics, (c) individualization and adaptation, and (d) collegial relationships. The four qualities identified are (a) high expectations, (b) positivity, (c) flexibility and creativity, and (d) continual improvement. Implications for research, practice, and teacher evaluation are discussed.