Andreas Eichhöfer

Chalcogen-Bridged Copper Clusters

The investigation of coinage metal molecular clusters bridged by chalcogen atoms represents an area of ever increasing activity in recent chemical and material science research. This is largely due to the relatively high ionic and even higher electric conductivity of binary coinage metal chalcogenides, which leads to properties intermediate between those of semiconducting and metallic phases. In addition, the size-dependency of the chemical, physical, and structural properties of substances on going from small molecules to bulk materials is of general interest. Approaches towards the synthesis and investigation of such clusters have included the study of colloidal nanoparticles with a narrow size distribution, as well as the formation and isolation of crystalline cluster compounds amenable to structural determination by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Irrespective of the chosen synthesis route, the molecules have to be kinetically protected from decomposition to the thermodynamically favored binary phases by a suitable ligand sphere, often consisting of tertiary phosphane molecules, or a combination of phosphanes and organic groups. In this report, we concentrate on the syntheses and structural as well as physical properties of ligand-stabilized, chalcogen-bridged copper clusters, which have been comprehensively studied by means of experimental and quantum chemical investigations.

Slow magnetic relaxation in trigonal-planar mononuclear Fe(II) and Co(II) bis(trimethylsilyl)amido complexes. A comparative study

Alternating current magnetic investigations on the trigonal-planar high-spin Co(2+) complexes [Li(15-crown-5)] [Co{N(SiMe3)2}3], [Co{N(SiMe3)2}2(THF)] (THF = tetrahydrofuran), and [Co{N(SiMe3)2}2(PCy3)] (Cy = -C6H13 = cyclohexyl) reveal that all three complexes display slow magnetic relaxation at temperatures below 8 K under applied dc (direct current) fields. The parameters characteristic for their respective relaxation processes such as effective energy barriers Ueff (16.1(2), 17.1(3), and 19.1(7) cm(-1)) and relaxation times τ0 (3.5(3) × 10(-7), 9.3(8) × 10(-8), and 3.0(8) × 10(-7) s) are almost the same, despite distinct differences in the ligand properties. In contrast, the isostructural high-spin Fe(2+) complexes [Li(15-crown-5)] [Fe{N(SiMe3)2}3] and [Fe{N(SiMe3)2}2(THF)] do not show slow relaxation of the magnetization under similar conditions, whereas the phosphine complex [Fe{N(SiMe3)2}2(PCy3)] does, as recently reported by Lin et al. (Lin, P.-H.; Smythe, N. C.; Gorelsky, S. I.; Maguire, S.; Henson, N. J.; Korobkov, I.; Scott, B. L.; Gordon, J. C.; Baker, R. T.; Murugesu, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 135, 15806.) Distinctly differing axial anisotropy D parameters were obtained from fits of the dc magnetic data for both sets of complexes. According to density functional theory (DFT) calculations, all complexes possess spatially nondegenerate ground states. Thus distinct spin-orbit coupling effects, as a main source of magnetic anisotropy, can only be generated by mixing with excited states. This is in line with significant contributions of excited determinants for some of the compounds in complete active space self-consistent field (CASSCF) calculations done for model complexes. Furthermore, the calculated energetic sequence of d orbitals for the cobalt compounds as well as for [Fe{N(SiMe3)2}2(PCy3)] differs significantly from the prediction by crystal field theory. Experimental and calculated (time-dependent DFT) optical spectra display characteristic d-d transitions in the visible to near-infrared region. Energies for lowest transitions range from 0.19 to 0.35 eV; whereas, for [Li(15-crown-5)][Fe{N(SiMe3)2}3] a higher value is found (0.66 eV). Zero-field (57)Fe Mößbauer spectra of the three high-spin iron complexes exhibit a doublet at 3 K with small and similar values of the isomer shifts (δ), ranging between 0.57 and 0.59 mm/s, as well as an unusual small quadrupole splitting (ΔEQ = 0.60 mm/s) in [Li(15-crown-5)][Fe{N(SiMe3)2}3].

Thermally Stable Porous Hydrogen-Bonded Coordination Networks Displaying Dual Properties of Robustness and Dynamics upon Guest Uptake

Two series of microporous lanthanide coordination networks of the general formula, {[Ln(ntb)Cl(3)] x xH(2)O}(n) (series 1: monoclinic C2/c, Ln = Sm and Tb; series 2: hexagonal P3(1)/c, Ln = Sm and Eu; ntb = tris(benzimidazol-2-ylmethyl)amine, x = 0-4) have been synthesized and characterized by IR, elemental analyses, thermal gravimetry, and single-crystal and powder X-ray diffraction methods. In both series, the monomeric [Ln(ntb)Cl(3)] coordination units are consolidated by N-H...Cl or C-H...Cl hydrogen bonds to sustain three-dimensional (3D) networks. However, the different modes of hydrogen bonding in the two series lead to crystallization of the same [Ln(ntb)Cl(3)] monomers in different forms (monoclinic vs. hexagonal), consequently giving rise to distinct porous structures. The resulting hydrogen-bonded coordination networks display high thermal stability and robustness in water removal/inclusion processes, which was confirmed by temperature-dependent single-crystal-to-single-crystal transformation measurements. Adsorption studies with H(2), CO(2), and MeOH have been carried out, and reveal distinct differences in adsorption behavior between the two forms. In the case of MeOH uptake, the monoclinic network shows a normal type I isotherm, whereas the hexagonal network displays dynamic porous properties.

The supramolecular organization of self-assembling chlorosomal bacteriochlorophyll c, d, or e mimics

Bacteriochlorophylls (BChls) c, d, and e are the main light-harvesting pigments of green photosynthetic bacteria that self-assemble into nanostructures within the chlorosomes forming the most efficient antennas of photosynthetic organisms. All previous models of the chlorosomal antennae, which are quite controversially discussed because no single crystals could be grown so far from these organelles, involve a strong hydrogen-bonding interaction between the 31 hydroxyl group and the 131 carbonyl group. We have synthesized different self-assemblies of BChl c mimics having the same functional groups as the natural counterparts, that is, a hydroxyethyl substituent, a carbonyl group and a divalent metal atom ligated by a tetrapyrrole. These artificial BChl mimics have been shown by single crystal x-ray diffraction to form extended stacks that are packed by hydrophobic interactions and in the absence of hydrogen bonding. Time-resolved photoluminescence proves the ordered nature of the self-assembled stacks. FT-IR spectra show that on self-assembly the carbonyl frequency is shifted by ≈30 cm−1 to lower wavenumbers. From the FT-IR data we can infer the proximal interactions between the BChls in the chlorosomes consistent with a single crystal x-ray structure that shows a weak electrostatic interaction between carbonyl groups and the central zinc atom.

Self-Assembly by Hydrogen Bonding and π−π Interactions in the Crystal of a Porphyrin − Attempts to Mimic Bacteriochlorophyllc

Porphyrins bearing undecyl side chains, which confer solubility, and 4-(methoxycarbonyl)phenyl substituents in the meso positions have been prepared. The 4-(methoxycarbonyl) substituent could be transformed into groups tailored for self-assembly. The crystal structure of the dihydroxymethyleneporphyrin, bis[4-(hydroxymethyl)phenyl]porphyrin 7, shows strong hydrogen bonds between the hydroxy group and pyrrole nitrogen atoms in neighboring molecules, resulting in a two-dimensional network of hydrogen-bonded porphyrins. π−π Interactions are also encountered, bringing porphyrins into laddered stacks with edge-to-edge contacts of 3.5 A. The isomeric diesters Zn-3 and Zn-4 show different tendencies in π−π stacking. Models of bacteriochlorophyll c Zn-8 and Zn-11, possessing a formyl group, a hydroxymethyl group, and a central zinc atom, have been synthesized. In contrast to bacteriochlorophyll c, which self-assembles both in the natural antenna system of green photosynthetic bacteria and in nonpolar solvents, the self-assembly Zn-8 and Zn-11 could not be observed in solution. The results provide information for the design of better mimics of natural light-harvesting arrays formed by self-assembling porphyrins.

The interplay of iron(II) spin transition and polymorphism

The mononuclear compound (1) [Fe(II)(L)(2)](BF(4))(2) (L = 4-ethynyl-2,6-bis(pyrazol-1-yl)pyridine) was prepared and structurally as well as magnetically characterised. The crystallisation revealed the formation of two polymorphs--the orthorhombic 1A and the tetragonal form 1B. A third, intermediate phase 1C was found exhibiting a different orthorhombic space group. Reversibility of the phase transition between 1A and 1C was studied by variable-temperature single-crystal and powder X-ray diffraction studies, while an irreversible phase transition was observed for the transition of 1B→1C. The magnetic studies show that the 1A↔1C transition is accompanied by a very abrupt spin transition (ST) with 8 K hysteresis width (T(1/2)(↓) = 337 K, T(1/2)(↑) = 345 K). The ST was confirmed by Mössbauer spectroscopy as well as by DSC studies. In contrast, the 1B polymorph remained low-spin up to 420 K. In conclusion, a full cycle of intertwined phase- and spin-conversions of three polymorphs could be proven following the general scheme 1B→1C↔1A.

Programmed Metalloporphyrins for Self-Assembly within Light-Harvesting Stacks: (5,15-Dicyano-10,20-bis(3,5-di- tert -butylphenyl)porphyrinato)zinc(II) and Its Push−Pull 15- N , N -Dialkylamino-5-cyano Congeners Obtained by a Facile Direct Amination

The title dicyano compound was synthesized via cyanation and it self-assembles in nonpolar solvents giving red-shifted and broad absorption maxima just as the bacteriochlorophylls which are encountered in the light-harvesting organelles of early photosynthetic bacteria. In the crystal, stacks are formed through a hierarchic combination of pi-stacking and a CN-Zn electrostatic interaction. Push-pull 15-N,N-dialkylamino-5-cyano congeners could be obtained in high yields using a solvent- and catalyst-free direct amination of meso-bromoporphyrins. Importantly, the fluorescence of the self-assembled species due to the very orderly manner in which the chromophores are arranged is not entirely quenched and has a surprisingly long lifetime of over 1 ns. This lends hope of using the trapped energy in biomimetic hybrid solar cells.

Mimics of the self-assembling chlorosomal bacteriochlorophylls: regio- and stereoselective synthesis and stereoanalysis of acyl(1-hydroxyalkyl)porphyrins.

Diacylation of copper 10,20-bis(3,5-di-tert-butylphenylporphyrin) using Friedel-Crafts conditions at short reaction times, high concentrations of catalyst, and 0-4 degrees C affords only the 3,17-diacyl-substituted porphyrins, out of the 12 possible regioisomers. At longer reaction times and higher temperatures, the 3,13-diacyl compounds are also formed, and the two isomers can be conveniently separated by normal chromatographic techniques. Monoreduction of these diketones affords in good yields the corresponding acyl(1-hydroxyalkyl)porphyrins, which after zinc metalation are mimics of the natural chlorosomal bacteriochlorophyll (BChl) d. Racemate resolution by HPLC on a variety of chiral columns was achieved and further optimized, thus permitting easy access to enantiopure porphyrins. Enantioselective reductions proved to be less effective in this respect, giving moderate yields and only 79% ee in the best case. The absolute configuration of the 3(1)-stereocenter was assigned by independent chemical and spectroscopic methods. Self-assembly of a variety of these zinc BChl d mimics proves that a collinear arrangement of the hydroxyalkyl substituent with the zinc atom and the carbonyl substituent is not a stringent requirement, since both the 3,13 and the 3,17 regioisomers self-assemble readily as the racemates. Interestingly, the separated enantiomers self-assemble less readily, as judged by absorption, fluorescence, and transmission electron microscopy studies. Circular dichroism spectra of the self-assemblies show intense Cotton effects, which are mirror-images for the two 3(1)-enantiomers, proving that the supramolecular chirality is dependent on the configuration at the 3(1)-stereocenter. Upon disruption of these self-assemblies with methanol, which competes with zinc ligation, only very weak monomeric Cotton effects are present. The favored heterochiral self-assembly process may also be encountered for the natural BChls. This touches upon the long-standing problem of why both 3(1)-epimers are encountered in BChls in ratios that vary with the illumination and culturing conditions.

Synthetic molecular motors: Thermal N inversion and directional photoinduced C=N Bond Rotation of Camphorquinone Imines

The thermal and photochemical E/Z isomerization of camphorquinone-derived imines was studied by a combination of kinetic, structural, and computational methods. The thermal isomerization proceeds by linear N inversion, whereas the photoinduced process occurs through C=N bond rotation with preferred directionality as a result of diastereoisomerism. Thereby, these imines are arguably the simplest example of synthetic molecular motors. The generality of the orthogonal trajectories of the thermal and photochemical pathways allows for the postulation that every suitable chiral imine qualifies, in principle, as a molecular motor driven by light or heat.

Field-Induced Slow Magnetic Relaxation in the Ni(I) Complexes [NiCl(PPh3)2]·C4H8O and [Ni(N(SiMe3)2)(PPh3)2].

Direct current (dc) and alternating current (ac) magnetic measurements have been performed on the three Ni(I) complexes: [NiCl(PPh3)3], [NiCl(PPh3)2]·C4H8O, and [Ni(N(SiMe3)2)(PPh3)2]. Fits of the dc magnetic data suggest an almost similar behavior of the three compounds, which display only moderate deviations from the spin-only values. The ac magnetic investigations reveal that the two complexes with trigonal planar coordination--[NiCl(PPh3)2]·C4H8O and [Ni(N(SiMe3)2)(PPh3)2]--display slow magnetic relaxation at low temperatures under applied dc fields, whereas tetrahedral [NiCl(PPh3)3] does not. Ground and excited states as well as magnetic data were calculated by ab initio wave function based multi-configurational methods, including dynamic correlation as well as spin-orbit coupling. The two trigonal planar complexes comprise well-isolated S = (1)/2 ground states, whereas two S = (1)/2 states with a splitting of less than 100 cm(-1) were found in the tetrahedral compound.