Andreas N. Angelakis

Treatment of Wastewater With Slow Rate Systems: A Review of Treatment Processes and Plant Functions

Land treatment systems constitute a viable alternative solution for wastewater management in cases where the construction of conventional (mechanical) wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are not affordable or other disposal options are not available. They have proven to be an ideal technology for small rural communities, clusters of homes, and small industrial units due to low energy demands and low operation and maintenance costs. In addition, slow rate systems (SRS) may be designed using the “zero discharge” concept. The purpose of this article is to review the current trends and developments in the field of SRS, focusing on those systems in which effluent application is based on plant water requirements. Vegetation has an important role in treatment efficiency through its effects on hydraulic loading rate, nutrient removal, and biomass production. In addition, vegetation may affect the fate of trace elements and the degradation/detoxification of recalcitrant organics. Detailed knowledge of the basic processes involved in wastewater treatment and the factors governing the performance of SRS is fundamental for enhancing treatment efficiency and eliminating potential environmental and health risks. Finally, monitoring performance of SRS and adopting the appropriate management strategies are of paramount importance to maintain treatment efficiency over the a long term.

Water Reuse in EU States: Necessity for Uniform Criteria to Mitigate Human and Environmental Risks

Water quality criteria are an indispensable part of water reuse projects aiming to ensure the protection of public health and the environment. In addition, criteria can affect the development, public acceptance, and economic viability of water reuse projects. Currently no uniform criteria exist, but they diverge, often greatly, between countries and states. The authors briefly present the evolution of reuse criteria worldwide and discuss emerging issues related to ecological and public health risks that have not addressed adequately in existing criteria. They specifically focus on European Union (EU) countries and present their water reuse status based on the published data and the existing (or nonexisting) reuse frameworks. Data gathered from public agencies reveal a high potential for water reuse in the EU that could potentially contribute to ensuring that fresh water is available for all sectors and to protect the environment, but it has not expanded at the expected rates. The lack of water reuse criteria was thought as the most important cause for this delay. lasting recent years, however, several countries, particularly those located in the Mediterranean basin, established water reuse criteria. Similarities and differences as well as potential benefits and drawbacks of these criteria are discussed and interpreted with these of the other world. An important conclusion is that the criteria enacted in Greece, Italy, and Spain will probably prevent the development of water reuse projects and increase the costs. Moreover, major challenges, the future views, and the necessity for establishing common regulations for water reuse at an EU level are considered.

Water and Wastewater Management Technologies in the Ancient Greek and Roman Civilizations

This chapter presents an overview of water and wastewater management practices in the ancient Minoan, Greek, and Roman civilizations. The main topics considered are: aqueducts; cisterns and reservoirs; water distribution systems and fountains; and drainage, sewerage systems, and toilets. The ancient technologies were surprisingly modern. The Minoan civilization gave an extraordinary contribution to the development of water and wastewater management practices. Also, most Greek houses had a cistern supplied by rainwater for several purposes (bathing, cleaning, houseplants, domestic animals, etc.) according to the sustainable development paradigm. The construction of an ancient Roman aqueduct was similar in principle to the present day.

Hydraulic Characteristics of the Drainage Systems of Ancient Hellenic Theatres: Case Study of the Theatre of Dionysus and Its Implications

AbstractThe content of this article provides interesting history, facts, and information about the drainage systems of ancient theaters in mainland Greece and Asia Minor from prehistoric times until the Hellenistic period. This study comprises representative examples of drainage systems in theaters at Knossos, Phaistos, Dionysus in Athens, Arcadian Orchomenos, Ephesus, and Delos. Moreover, the aim is to demonstrate that these drainage systems represent evolutionary techniques and principles that can still be used today to avoid wasting water resources. Moreover, these techniques may prove attractive for the development of sustainable strategies to counter mounting problems, especially those of a socioeconomic nature. In addition, the article presents evidence for the conception that adaptations to individual environmental and hydraulic characteristics of specific locations were considered in relation to drainage systems of ancient theaters. Thus, through a case study of the carrying capacity of drainage c...

Historical development of technologies for water resources management and rainwater harvesting in the Hellenic civilizations

The shortage of water in ancient Greek civilizations necessitated various collection methods and storage cisterns. In fact, rainwater harvesting dates back to Minoan times, ca. 3200–1100 BC. Since then, several types of cisterns have evolved, while a significant development appears to have occurred throughout Hellas during the Hellenistic period. In addition to the Hellenistic period, the succeeding Roman, Byzantine, Venetian and Ottoman periods are discussed. Within this context, a few examples relating to characteristics of Hellenistic cisterns, conveying illustrations of the development of technology during those historical periods, are included.

Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries

Most of the technological developments relevant to water supply and wastewater date back to more than to five thousand years ago. These developments were driven by the necessity to make efficient use of natural resources, to make civilizations more resistant to destructive natural elements, and to improve the standards of life, both at public and private level. Rapid technological progress in the 20th century created a disregard for past sanitation and wastewater and stormwater technologies that were considered to be far behind the present ones. A great deal of unresolved problems in the developing world related to the wastewater management principles, such as the decentralization of the processes, the durability of the water projects, the cost effectiveness, and sustainability issues, such as protection from floods and droughts were intensified to an unprecedented degree. New problems have arisen such as the contamination of surface and groundwater. Naturally, intensification of unresolved problems has led to the reconsideration of successful past achievements. This retrospective view, based on archaeological, historical, and technical evidence, has shown two things: the similarity of physicochemical and biological principles with the present ones and the advanced level of wastewater engineering and management practices. Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries presents and discusses the major achievements in the scientific fields of sanitation and hygienic water use systems throughout the millennia, and compares the water technological developments in several civilizations. It provides valuable insights into ancient wastewater and stormwater management technologies with their apparent characteristics of durability, adaptability to the environment, and sustainability. These technologies are the underpinning of modern achievements in sanitary engineering and wastewater management practices. It is the best proof that “the past is the key for the future”. Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries is a textbook for undergraduate and graduate courses of Water Resources, Civil Engineering, Hydraulics, Ancient History, Archaeology, Environmental Management and is also a valuable resource for all researchers in the these fields. ISBN: 9781780404851 (eBook) ISBN: 9781780404844 (Print)

Groundwater utilization through the centuries focusing οn the Hellenic civilizations

Groundwater has been utilized since the Prehistoric times. Water supply of some Minoan settlements on the eastern side of the island of Crete (Greece) was based on groundwater. Later on, many wells were constructed in several areas of Greece and their use expanded through subsequent periods. The greatest achievement in groundwater exploitation by ancient Greeks was the construction of long underground galleries or qanats, which collected water from springs and alluvial deposits. In Classical times, most of the wells were on private properties and their owners were forced by regulations to maintain the wells in good condition and ready for use in wartime. During that period, the first scientific theories of Aristotle and Theophrastus were developed in regards to hydrological phenomena, and the processes involved in the formation of surface water and groundwater were clarified. Wells played a major part in urban water supply during the Roman period, in which famous aqueducts were constructed to transfer water; however, several regions of Greece were self-sufficient in water, supplied by many wells from the Prehistoric to the Byzantine period. People understood the local geological conditions and, according to their culture, constructed and managed their own types of wells. In addition to the wells and aqueducts, the hydraulic technology included cisterns to store rainwater, and systems to capture spring water for transport by aqueducts. The examples of hydro-technologies and water management practices described in this paper may have some relevance for water engineering even in modern times.RésuméL’eau souterraine a été utilisée depuis les temps préhistoriques. L’approvisionnement en eau de certaines colonies Minoennes de la côte est de l’île de Crète (Grèce) était fondée sur les eaux souterraines. Plus tard, de nombreux puits ont été creusés dans plusieurs régions de Grèce et leur utilisation s’est développée au cours des périodes suivantes. La plus grande réussite dans l’exploitation de l’eau souterraine par les Grecs anciens a été la construction de longues galeries souterraines ou qanats, qui collectaient l’eau de sources ou de dépôts alluvionnaires. Dans l’Antiquité la plupart des puits étaient situés sur des propriétés privées et leurs propriétaires ont été contraints par la réglementation de maintenir les puits en bon état, prêts à l’emploi en temps de guerre. Durant cette période, Aristote et Théophraste développent les premières théories scientifiques relatives à l’hydrologie, et les processus entrant dans la formation des eaux de surface et souterraines ont été clarifiés. Les puits ont joué un rôle majeur dans l’approvisionnement en eau urbaine durant la période romaine, période durant laquelle des aqueducs célèbres ont été construits pour le transfert d’eau. Toutefois, depuis la Préhistoire jusqu’à la période Byzantine, plusieurs régions de Grèce étaient auto-suffisantes en eau, alimentées par les nombreux puits. Les populations comprenaient les structures géologiques locales et, selon leur culture, construisaient et exploitaient leurs propres types de puits. En plus des puits et aqueducs, la technologie hydraulique incluait des citernes pour stocker l’eau de pluie, et des systèmes pour capter l’eau de source et la transporter par aqueducs. Les exemples d’hydro-technologies et les pratiques de gestion de l’eau décrits dans cet article peuvent être pertinents pour l’ingénierie de l’eau même dans les temps modernes.ResumenEl agua subterránea se ha utilizado desde los tiempos prehistóricos. El abastecimiento de agua de algunos asentamientos minoicos en el lado oriental de la isla de Creta (Grecia) se basó en el agua subterránea. Más tarde, se construyeron muchos pozos en varias zonas de Grecia y su uso se expandió a través de períodos subsiguientes. El mayor logro en la explotación del agua subterránea por los antiguos griegos fue la construcción de largas galerías subterráneas o qanats, que recogían el agua de los manantiales y depósitos aluviales. En la época clásica la mayor parte de los pozos estaban en propiedades privadas y sus propietarios se vieron obligados por las normas para mantener los pozos en buenas condiciones y listos para su uso en tiempos de guerra. Durante ese período, las primeras teorías científicas de Aristóteles y Teofrasto se desarrollaron sobre los fenómenos hidrológicos, y se clarificaron los procesos que intervienen en la formación del agua superficial y del agua subterránea. Los pozos jugaron un papel importante en el suministro de agua urbana en la época romana, en la que se construyeron famosos acueductos para transferir el agua. Sin embargo, varias regiones de Grecia fueron autosuficientes en agua, suministrada por muchos pozos desde tiempos prehistóricos hasta el período bizantino. La gente entendió las condiciones geológicas locales y, de acuerdo con su cultura, construyeron y gestionaron sus propios tipos de pozos. Además de los pozos y acueductos, la tecnología hidráulica incluyó cisternas para almacenar agua de lluvia, y sistemas para captar agua de manantiales para su transporte por acueductos. Los ejemplos de los hidrotecnologías y las prácticas de gestión del agua que se describen en este trabajo pueden tener alguna relevancia para la ingeniería del agua, incluso en los tiempos modernos.摘要自从史前时代就开始利用地下水。(希腊)克里特岛东边的一些克里特人居住点的供水就靠 地下水。后来,在希腊一些地方打了很多井,随后的年代井利用进一步扩大。古希腊人地下水开采最大的成果就是建设很长的地下长廊或坎井,这些长廊和坎井从泉中及冲积层中收集水。在古希腊罗马时代,大多数井为私有财产,规定拥有者必须保持井的良好状态,在战时随时能投入使用。在那个时代,亚里士多德和泰奥弗拉斯托斯提出的关于水文现象、地表水和地下水形成过程的基本科学理论得到了清晰的阐明。在罗马时代,井在城市供水中发挥着主要作用,同时,还建设了著名的渡槽以输水。然而,希腊的几个地区从史前时代到东罗马帝国时代,水量上自给自足,由许多井供水。人们了解当地的地质条件,根据他们的文化程度,还建设和管理着他们特有类型的井。除了井和坎井,水利技术包括储存雨水的蓄水池及获取泉水并通过坎井输水的系统。本文论述的水-技术和水管理实践的实例可能甚至对当代的水工程具有关联性。ΠερίληψηΗ χρήση των υπόγειων νερών γινόταν από τα προϊστορικά χρόνια. Η ύδρευση ορισμένων μινωικών οικισμών στην ανατολική πλευρά της Κρήτης (Ελλάδα) βασίστηκε στα υπόγεια νερά. Αργότερα, πολλά πηγάδια κατασκευάστηκαν σε διάφορες περιοχές της Ελλάδα και η χρήση τους επεκτάθηκε στις μεταγενέστερες περιόδους. Το μεγαλύτερο επίτευγμα στον τομέα της εκμετάλλευσης των υπόγειων νερών από τους αρχαίους Έλληνες ήταν η κατασκευή υπόγειων στοών ή qanats, μέσω των οποίων συλλεγόταν το νερό από τις πηγές και τους αλλουβιακούς υδροφορείς. Στην κλασική εποχή τα περισσότερα πηγάδια ήσαν σε ιδιωτικές οικίες και οι ιδιοκτήτες τους αναγκάζονταν από νόμους για τη διατήρησή τους σε καλή κατάσταση και έτοιμα για χρήση σε καιρό πολέμου. Κατά τη διάρκεια αυτής της περιόδου, αναπτύχθηκαν οι πρώτες επιστημονικές θεωρίες του Αριστοτέλη και του Θεόφραστου για τα υδρολογικά φαινόμενα και διευκρινίστηκαν οι διαδικασίες σχηματισμού επιφανειακών και υπόγειων νερών. Τα πηγάδια έπαιξαν σημαντικό ρόλο στην προμήθεια νερού κατά τη Ρωμαϊκή περίοδο, κατά την οποία κατασκευάστηκαν περίφημα υδραγωγεία για τη μεταφορά του νερού. Ωστόσο, αρκετές περιοχές της Ελλάδα ήσαν αυτάρκεις σε νερό, που αντλούνταν από πολλά πηγάδια από την Προϊστορική έως τη Βυζαντινή περίοδο. Οι άνθρωποι αντιλαμβάνονταν τις τοπικές γεωλογικές συνθήκες και, σύμφωνα με τον πολιτισμό τους, κατασκεύασαν και διαχειρίσθηκαν τους δικούς τους τύπους πηγαδιών. Εκτός από τα πηγάδια και τα υδραγωγεία, η υδραυλική τεχνολογία περιλαμβάνει δεξαμενές για την αποθήκευση του νερού της βροχής, και συστήματα για τη συλλογή των πηγαίων νερών και τη μεταφορά τους από υδραγωγεία. Τα παραδείγματα των υδροτεχνολογιών και των πρακτικών διαχείρισης των νερών που περιγράφονται στο παρόν άρθρο μπορεί να έχουν κάποιο ενδιαφέρον ακόμη και στη σύγχρονη εποχή.RiassuntoLe acque sotterranee sono state utilizzate fin dai tempi preistorici. La fornitura di acqua per alcuni insediamenti minoici, sul lato orientale dell’isola di Creta (Grecia), si è basata sulle acque sotterranee. In seguito, molti pozzi sono stati costruiti in diverse aree della Grecia e il loro utilizzo si è ampliato attraverso periodi successivi. Il più grande successo nello sfruttamento delle acque sotterranee da parte degli antichi greci è stato la costruzione di lunghe gallerie sotterranee o Qantas, che raccoglievano l’acqua da sorgenti e depositi alluvionali. In epoca classica la maggior parte dei pozzi sono stati realizzati sulle proprietà private ed i loro proprietari sono stati costretti dai regolamenti a mantenere i pozzi in buone condizioni e pronto per l’uso in tempo di guerra. Durante questo period sono state definite le prime teorie scientifiche di Aristotele e Teofrasto sviluppate sui fenomeni idrologici e sui processi coinvolti nella formazione delle acque superficiali e sotterranee. I pozzi hanno giocato un ruolo importante nel rifornimento idrico urbano durante il periodo romano, in cui sono stati costruiti acquedotti famosi per trasferire l’acqua. Tuttavia, diverse regioni della Grecia erano autosufficienti in termini di risorsa idrica, fornita da molti pozzi realizzati dalla Preistoria al periodo bizantino. La gente, capite le condizioni geologiche locali e, in base alla loro cultura, hanno costruito e gestiti to i propri tipi di pozzi. In aggiunta ai pozzi e acquedotti, la tecnologia idraulica include cisterne per immagazzinare d’acqua piovana e sistemi per captare le acque sorgive per il trasporto in acquedotti. Gli esempi di tecnologie idrologiche e pratiche di gestione dell’acqua descritte in questo documento possono avere una certa rilevanza per l’ingegneria idraulica anche in tempi moderni.چکیدهآب های زیرزمینی از زمان های ماقبل تاریخ مورد استفاده قرار گرفته است. تامین آب مورد نیاز برخی از شهرک مینوان در سمت شرقی جزیره کرت (یونان) وابسته به آب های زیرزمینی بوده است. بعدها، بسیاری از چاه در مناطق مختلف از یونان ساخته شد و استفاده از آنها از طریق دوره های بعدی گسترش یافته است. بزرگترین دستاورد در بهره برداری آبهای زیرزمینی توسط یونانیان باستان ساخت گالری های زیرزمینی طولانی و یا قنات، که آب از چشمه ها از رسوبات آبرفتی جمع آوری شد. در دوران باستان بسیاری از چاه در ملک خصوصی و صاحبان خود را با مقررات مجبور شدند برای حفظ چاه در شرایط خوب و آماده برای زمان جنگ مورد استفاده قرار گیرد . در طی این

Evolution of Cretan Aqueducts and Their Potential for Hydroelectric Exploitation

In this article, several archaeological, historical and other aspects of aqueducts in Crete, Greece, since the prehistoric times until today, are reviewed and presented. In Crete, since the Minoan era, various water management techniques that are found in modern water technologies were developed and applied. One of the most significant features of the Minoan civilization was the architecture of water supply systems in the palaces and other settlements. These technologies were continued and improved mainly during the Classical, Hellenistic and Roman periods and at the same time spread to other towns in the mainland and islands. The aqueduct technologies developed during the Classical and Hellenistic periods were further developed by Romans, mainly by enlarging their application scale (e.g., water bridges). Several paradigms of Cretan aqueducts are considered by which the significance of those technologies for water supply in areas with limited water resources is justified. A brief presentation and discussion of climatic conditions, the karst hydrogeology and the water resources management in Crete is also included. The article also describes the present water management profile of the island, in terms of the water plants, water supply–irrigation networks, and water renewable energy exploitation of dams and water pipelines.

WATER REUSE: FROM ANCIENT TO MODERN TIMES AND THE FUTURE

Domestic wastewater (sewage) has been used for irrigation and aquaculture since the Bronze Age (ca. 3,200-1,100 BC) by prehistoric civilizations (e.g. Chinese, Egyptian, Indus Valley, Mesopotamian, and Minoan). In historic times (ca. 1,000 BC-330 AD), wastewater was disposed of or used for irrigation and fertilization purposes by the Greek civilization and later by the Romans in areas surrounding cities (e.g. Athens and Rome). In more recent history, the practice of land application of wastewater for disposal and agricultural use was utilized first in European cities and later in USA. Today, the planning and implementation of water reclamation and reuse projects is occurring throughout the world. Recycled water is now used for almost any purpose including potable use. This paper provides a brief overview of the evolution of water reuse over the last ca. 5,000 years. Understanding the practices and solutions of the past, provides a lens with which to view present and future challenges in a highly-urbanized world.