Andreia F. Peixoto

Synthesis, photophysical studies and anticancer activity of a new halogenated water-soluble porphyrin

A water‐soluble halogenated porphyrin, namely 5,10,15,20‐tetrakis(2‐chloro‐3‐sulfophenyl)porphyrin (TCPPSO3H), was prepared and evaluated as sensitizer for photodynamic therapy (PDT). Photophysical properties of TCPPSO3H, such as high photostability, long triplet lifetime and high singlet oxygen quantum yield suggest high effectiveness of this class of halogenated porphyrins in PDT. TCPPSO3H is non‐toxic in the dark and causes a significant photodynamic effect examined against MCF7 (human breast carcinoma), SKMEL 188 (human melanoma) and S91(mouse melanoma) cell lines upon red light irradiation (cutoff < 600 nm) at low light doses. Time‐dependent cellular uptake of TCPPSO3H reached plateau at 120 min and was the highest for S91, 20% lower for MCF7 and 70% lower for SKMEL 188. Our results show that this halogenated water‐soluble porphyrin is an efficient photosensitizer and reveal the potential of this class of compounds as PDT agents.

Mechanisms of cisplatin resistance and targeting of cancer stem cells: Adding glycosylation to the equation

Cisplatin-based chemotherapeutic regimens are the most frequently used (neo)adjuvant treatments for the majority of solid tumors. While platinum-based chemotherapeutic regimens have proven effective against highly proliferative malignant tumors, significant relapse and progression rates as well as decreased overall survival are still observed. Currently, it is known that sub-populations of chemoresistant cells share biological properties with cancer stem cells (CSC), which are believed to be responsible for tumor relapse, invasion and ultimately disease dissemination through acquisition of mesenchymal cell traits. In spite of concentrated efforts devoted to decipher the mechanisms underlying CSC chemoresistance and to design targeted therapeutics to these cells, proteomics has failed to unveil molecular signatures capable of distinguishing between malignant and non-malignant stem cells. This has hampered substantial developments in this complex field. Envisaging a novel rationale for an effective therapy, the current review summarizes the main cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying cisplatin resistance and the impact of chemotherapy challenge in CSC selection and clinical outcome. It further emphasizes the growing amount of data supporting a role for protein glycosylation in drug resistance. The dynamic and context-dependent nature of protein glycosylation is also comprehensively discussed, hence highlighting its potentially important role as a biomarker of CSC. As the paradigm of cancer therapeutics shifts towards precision medicine and patient-tailored therapeutics, we bring into focus the need to introduce glycomics and glycoproteomics in holistic pan-omics models, in order to integrate diverse, multimodal and clinically relevant information towards more effective cancer therapeutics.

Abnormal Protein Glycosylation and Activated PI3K/Akt/mTOR Pathway: Role in Bladder Cancer Prognosis and Targeted Therapeutics.

Muscle invasive bladder cancer (MIBC, stage ≥T2) is generally associated with poor prognosis, constituting the second most common cause of death among genitourinary tumours. Due to high molecular heterogeneity significant variations in the natural history and disease outcome have been observed. This has also delayed the introduction of personalized therapeutics, making advanced stage bladder cancer almost an orphan disease in terms of treatment. Altered protein glycosylation translated by the expression of the sialyl-Tn antigen (STn) and its precursor Tn as well as the activation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway are cancer-associated events that may hold potential for patient stratification and guided therapy. Therefore, a retrospective design, 96 bladder tumours of different stages (Ta, T1-T4) was screened for STn and phosphorylated forms of Akt (pAkt), mTOR (pmTOR), S6 (pS6) and PTEN, related with the activation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. In our series the expression of Tn was residual and was not linked to stage or outcome, while STn was statically higher in MIBC when compared to non-muscle invasive tumours (p = 0.001) and associated decreased cancer-specific survival (log rank p = 0.024). Conversely, PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway intermediates showed an equal distribution between non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) and MIBC and did not associate with cancer-specif survival (CSS) in any of these groups. However, the overexpression of pAKT, pmTOR and/or pS6 allowed discriminating STn-positive advanced stage bladder tumours facing worst CSS (p = 0.027). Furthermore, multivariate Cox regression analysis revealed that overexpression of PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway proteins in STn+ MIBC was independently associated with approximately 6-fold risk of death by cancer (p = 0.039). Mice bearing advanced stage chemically-induced bladder tumours mimicking the histological and molecular nature of human tumours were then administrated with mTOR-pathway inhibitor sirolimus (rapamycin). This decreased the number of invasive lesions and, concomitantly, the expression of STn and also pS6, the downstream effector of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. In conclusion, STn was found to be marker of poor prognosis in bladder cancer and, in combination with PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway evaluation, holds potential to improve the stratification of stage disease. Animal experiments suggest that mTOR pathway inhibition could be a potential therapeutic approach for this specific subtype of MIBC.

P53 and Cancer-Associated Sialylated Glycans Are Surrogate Markers of Cancerization of the Bladder Associated with Schistosoma haematobium Infection

Background Bladder cancer is a significant health problem in rural areas of Africa and the Middle East where Schistosoma haematobium is prevalent, supporting an association between malignant transformation and infection by this blood fluke. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms linking these events are poorly understood. Bladder cancers in infected populations are generally diagnosed at a late stage since there is a lack of non-invasive diagnostic tools, hence enforcing the need for early carcinogenesis markers. Methodology/Principal Findings Forty-three formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded bladder biopsies of S. haematobium-infected patients, consisting of bladder tumours, tumour adjacent mucosa and pre-malignant/malignant urothelial lesions, were screened for bladder cancer biomarkers. These included the oncoprotein p53, the tumour proliferation rate (Ki-67>17%), cell-surface cancer-associated glycan sialyl-Tn (sTn) and sialyl-Lewisa/x (sLea/sLex), involved in immune escape and metastasis. Bladder tumours of non-S. haematobium etiology and normal urothelium were used as controls. S. haematobium-associated benign/pre-malignant lesions present alterations in p53 and sLex that were also found in bladder tumors. Similar results were observed in non-S. haematobium associated tumours, irrespectively of their histological nature, denoting some common molecular pathways. In addition, most benign/pre-malignant lesions also expressed sLea. However, proliferative phenotypes were more prevalent in lesions adjacent to bladder tumors while sLea was characteristic of sole benign/pre-malignant lesions, suggesting it may be a biomarker of early carcionogenesis associated with the parasite. A correlation was observed between the frequency of the biomarkers in the tumor and adjacent mucosa, with the exception of Ki-67. Most S. haematobium eggs embedded in the urothelium were also positive for sLea and sLex. Reinforcing the pathologic nature of the studied biomarkers, none was observed in the healthy urothelium. Conclusion/Significance This preliminary study suggests that p53 and sialylated glycans are surrogate biomarkers of bladder cancerization associated with S. haematobium, highlighting a missing link between infection and cancer development. Eggs of S. haematobium express sLea and sLex antigens in mimicry of human leukocytes glycosylation, which may play a role in the colonization and disease dissemination. These observations may help the early identification of infected patients at a higher risk of developing bladder cancer and guide the future development of non-invasive diagnostic tests.

Synthesis of Ortho-alkoxy-aryl Carboxamides via Palladium-Catalyzed Aminocarbonylation

Abstract Various aryl carboxamides with alkoxy substituents at the ortho-position, applicable as direct intermediates toward novel ligands, were synthesised via aminocarbonylation of aryl-iodides (2-iodoanisole, 5-chloro-7-iodo-8-methoxy-quinoline, and 5-chloro-7-iodo-8-benzyloxy-quinoline) in the presence of in situ generated palladium(0) catalysts. Simple primary and secondary amines as well as aminoacid esters were used as N-nucleophiles. The optimization of the reaction conditions allowed the preferential formation of carboxamides or ketocarboxamides by simple or double carbon monoxide insertion, respectively. A strong dependence of the chemoselectivity on carbon monoxide pressure was observed.

Protein glycosylation in gastric and colorectal cancers: Toward cancer detection and targeted therapeutics

Glycosylation is the most frequent and structurally complex posttranslational modification in cell-surface and secreted proteins. Glycans are major orchestrators of biological processes, namely, by controlling protein folding and key biological functions such as cell adhesion, migration, signaling and immune recognition. Altered glycosylation is considered a hallmark of malignant transformations that decisively contributes to disease outcome. This review comprehensively summarizes the main findings related with gastrointestinal cancers and the decisive impact of aberrant glycosylation on tumor biology toward more aggressive phenotypes. Particular emphasis is given to alterations in O-glycosylation, namely, the overexpression of immature O-glycans, and the sialylated Lewis antigens sialyl-LeA and sialyl-LeX, frequently implicated in lymphohematogenous metastasis. We further discuss how recent contributions from glycoproteomics and glycoengineering fields have broadened our understanding of the human O-glycoproteome and its implications for cancer research. Finally, we address the tremendous potential of glycans in the context of targeted therapeutics (selective inhibition of glycosylation pathways, immunotherapy) and discuss the need to include glycomics/glycoproteomics in holistic panomics models toward true precision medicine settings.

Hydroformylation: a versatile tool for the synthesis of new β-formyl-metalloporphyrins

Abstract Formyl derivatives of protoporphyrin-IX dimethyl ester metal complexes were obtained via hydroformylation reactions, catalysed by rhodium–triphenylphosphine complexes. The regioselectivity of the reaction is remarkably dependent on the metal centre of the porphyrin, yielding 100% of the branched aldehyde with zinc(II) complexes and 75% with the nickel(II). The NMR characterisation of the new compounds was carried out after their derivatisation into acetals.

Targeted O‐glycoproteomics explored increased sialylation and identified MUC16 as a poor prognosis biomarker in advanced‐stage bladder tumours

Bladder carcinogenesis and tumour progression is accompanied by profound alterations in protein glycosylation on the cell surface, which may be explored for improving disease management. In a search for prognosis biomarkers and novel therapeutic targets we have screened, using immunohistochemistry, a series of bladder tumours with differing clinicopathology for short‐chain O‐glycans commonly found in glycoproteins of human solid tumours. These included the Tn and T antigens and their sialylated counterparts sialyl‐Tn(STn) and sialyl‐T(ST), which are generally associated with poor prognosis. We have also explored the nature of T antigen sialylation, namely the sialyl‐3‐T(S3T) and sialyl‐6‐T(S6T) sialoforms, based on combinations of enzymatic treatments. We observed a predominance of sialoglycans over neutral glycoforms (Tn and T antigens) in bladder tumours. In particular, the STn antigen was associated with high‐grade disease and muscle invasion, in accordance with our previous observations. The S3T and S6T antigens were detected for the first time in bladder tumours, but not in healthy urothelia, highlighting their cancer‐specific nature. These glycans were also overexpressed in advanced lesions, especially in cases showing muscle invasion. Glycoproteomic analyses of advanced bladder tumours based on enzymatic treatments, Vicia villosa lectin‐affinity chromatography enrichment and nanoLC‐ESI‐MS/MS analysis resulted in the identification of several key cancer‐associated glycoproteins (MUC16, CD44, integrins) carrying altered glycosylation. Of particular interest were MUC16 STn+‐glycoforms, characteristic of ovarian cancers, which were found in a subset of advanced‐stage bladder tumours facing the worst prognosis. In summary, significant alterations in the O‐glycome and O‐glycoproteome of bladder tumours hold promise for the development of novel noninvasive diagnostic tools and targeted therapeutics. Furthermore, abnormal MUC16 glycoforms hold potential as surrogate biomarkers of poor prognosis and unique molecular signatures for designing highly specific targeted therapeutics.

Hypoxia enhances the malignant nature of bladder cancer cells and concomitantly antagonizes protein O -glycosylation extension

Invasive bladder tumours express the cell-surface Sialyl-Tn (STn) antigen, which stems from a premature stop in protein O-glycosylation. The STn antigen favours invasion, immune escape, and possibly chemotherapy resistance, making it attractive for target therapeutics. However, the events leading to such deregulation in protein glycosylation are mostly unknown. Since hypoxia is a salient feature of advanced stage tumours, we searched into how it influences bladder cancer cells glycophenotype, with emphasis on STn expression. Therefore, three bladder cancer cell lines with distinct genetic and molecular backgrounds (T24, 5637 and HT1376) were submitted to hypoxia. To disclose HIF-1α-mediated events, experiments were also conducted in the presence of Deferoxamine Mesilate (Dfx), an inhibitor of HIF-1α proteasomal degradation. In both conditions all cell lines overexpressed HIF-1α and its transcriptionally-regulated protein CA-IX. This was accompanied by increased lactate biosynthesis, denoting a shift toward anaerobic metabolism. Concomitantly, T24 and 5637 cells acquired a more motile phenotype, consistent with their more mesenchymal characteristics. Moreover, hypoxia promoted STn antigen overexpression in all cell lines and enhanced the migration and invasion of those presenting more mesenchymal characteristics, in an HIF-1α-dependent manner. These effects were reversed by reoxygenation, demonstrating that oxygen affects O-glycan extension. Glycoproteomics studies highlighted that STn was mainly present in integrins and cadherins, suggesting a possible role for this glycan in adhesion, cell motility and invasion. The association between HIF-1α and STn overexpressions and tumour invasion was further confirmed in bladder cancer patient samples. In conclusion, STn overexpression may, in part, result from a HIF-1α mediated cell-survival strategy to adapt to the hypoxic challenge, favouring cell invasion. In addition, targeting STn-expressing glycoproteins may offer potential to treat tumour hypoxic niches harbouring more malignant cells.

Synthesis and characterization of a lipidic alpha amino acid: solubility and interaction with serum albumin and lipid bilayers.

The lipidic α-amino acid with 11 carbons in the alkyl lateral chain (α-aminotridecanoic acid) was synthesized via multicomponent hydroformylation/Strecker reaction, which is a greener synthetic approach to promote this transformation relative to previously described methods. Its solubility and aggregation behavior in aqueous solutions was characterized, as well as the interaction with lipid bilayers. Lipidic amino acids are very promising molecules in the development of prodrugs with increased bioavailability due to the presence of the two polar functional groups and nonpolar alkyl chain. They are also biocompatible surfactants that may be used in the food and pharmaceutical industry. In this work we have conjugated the lipidic amino acid with a fluorescent polar group (7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl), to mimic drug conjugates, and its association with serum proteins and lipid bilayers was characterized. The results obtained indicate that conjugates of polar molecules with lipidic α-amino acid, via covalent attachment to the amine group, have a relatively high solubility in aqueous solutions due to their negative global charge. They bind to serum albumin with intermediate affinity and show a very high partition coefficient into lipid bilayers in the liquid-disordered state. The attachment of the polar group to the lipidic amino acid increased strongly the aqueous solubility of the amphiphile, although the partition coefficient into lipid membranes was not significantly reduced. Conjugation of polar drugs with lipidic amino acids is therefore an efficient approach to increase their affinity for biomembranes.