Andrej Gosar

Microtremor HVSR Study of Site Effects in the Ilirska Bistrica Town Area (S. Slovenia)

The region of Ilirska Bistrica is one of the most seismically active areas of Slovenia, where 15 damaging earthquakes with maximum intensity equal or greater than V EMS-98 have occurred in the last 100 years. These earthquakes have shown that strong site effects are characteristic of the parts of the town that are built on soft Pliocene clay and sand overlain by Quaternary alluvium. Since there is a lack of boreholes and geophysical and earthquake data, the microtremor horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) method was applied to a 250 m dense grid of free-field measurements over an extended area and to a 200 m dense grid in the town area in order to assess the fundamental frequency of the sediments. Measurements were additionally performed in ten characteristic houses to assess the main building frequencies. The effects of wind and artificial noise on the reliability of the results were analyzed. The map of the fundamental frequencies of sediments shows a distribution in a range of 1–20 Hz. The lower frequency range (below 10 Hz) corresponds to the extent of Pliocene clays and sand overlain by alluvium, which form a small basin, and the higher frequencies to flysch rocks, but variations within short distances are considerable. The measurements inside the buildings of various heights (2–6 stories) showed main longitudinal and transverse frequencies in the range 3.8–8.8 Hz. Since this range overlaps with the fundamental frequency range for Pliocene and Quaternary sediments (2–10 Hz), the danger of soil-structure resonance is considerable, especially in the northern part of the town. Soil-structure resonance is less probable in the central and southern part of the town, where higher free-field frequencies prevail. These observations are in agreement with the distribution of damage caused by the 1995 earthquake (ML = 4.7, Imax = VI EMS-98), for which a detailed damage survey data is available.

Site Effects Study in a Shallow Glaciofluvial Basin Using H/V Spectral Ratios From Ambient Noise and Earthquake Data: The Case of Bovec Basin (NW Slovenia)

The Bovec basin, which is located in the alpine valley of the Soča river (NW Slovenia), was recently struck by two strong earthquakes (1998 and 2004) which caused extensive damage of maximum intensity VII-VIII EMS-98. Macroseismic data for both events showed large variations in damage to buildings within short distances and indicated strong effects of sediments on ground motion. A site effects study was therefore performed using H/V spectral ratios from earthquake data and from ambient noise, as well as standard spectral ratio technique using the reference station located on the edge of the basin. Following the July 12, 2004 (Mw = 5.2) earthquake, six strong motion seismic stations were deployed in a profile across the Bovec basin to record the aftershock sequence. Accelerograms of eight stronger aftershocks (ML = 2.5–3.6) and additional ambient noise measurements were used in the study. Spectral ratio analyses showed that ground motion amplification occurs mainly in a frequency range of 5–10 Hz, with corresponding amplitudes in the range of 6–11. The observed range of amplification cannot be related to the total thickness of Quaternary sediments, which is up to 100 m in the Bovec basin. The variability in the main peak frequencies and in their amplitudes is therefore explained by the complex geological structure of the basin, filled with heterogeneous glacial and fluvial sediments. Irregular layers of conglomerate within sand/gravel deposits and layers of tillite result in large impedance contrasts at several interfaces within Quaternary sediments. Spectral ratios from earthquake data are therefore quite complex and show a broad range of ground motion amplification. On the other hand, ambient noise data revealed only the first stronger impedance contrast which is related in the border areas to the flysch bedrock and in the central part of the basin to a shallow layer of conglomerate. Comparison of the two H/V analyses showed that the amplitude obtained from ambient noise data is always lower than the amplitude from earthquake data. The difference can be as much as a factor of two. These quantitative results apply to weak ground motion and because of nonlinearity cannot be directly extrapolated to damaging earthquake situation. Since one and two-story houses prevail in the Bovec basin, with the main building frequency in the range of 6–11 Hz, the danger of soil-structure resonance is considerable in the area. It was presumably one of the main reasons for the relatively high level of damage observed from both earthquakes.

Search for an artificially buried karst cave entrance using ground penetrating radar: a successful case of locating the S-19 Cave in the Mt. Kanin massif (NW Slovenia)

The S-19 Cave was with its explored depth of 177 m one of the most important caves of the Mt. Kanin massif, but after its discovery in 1974, a huge snow avalanche protection dyke was constructed across the cave entrance. To excavate the buried cave, the accurate location of the cave had to be determined first. Since the entrance coordinates were incorrect and no markers were available, application of geophysical techniques was necessary to do this. A Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) with special 50 MHz rough terrain antennas was selected as the single suitable geophysical method for the given conditions where thick debris overlay a rugged limestone surface. Nevertheless, it was not possible to directly detect the relatively narrow cave entrance itself due to data resolution limits. However, a historical photo of the area showed that the cave entrance was located in a local depression, which therefore represented the main target of the GPR survey. Seven GPR profiles were measured across the rough and steep surface causing difficulties in traversing the area with sensitive research equipment. In all recorded radargrams a small depression was clearly imaged under debris, and recognized as a topographic feature with the cave entrance. Based on the GPR data interpretation, the exact location for digging was determined and the thickness of debris assessed at 6.5–7 m. A massive excavation by a dredger resulted in a successful opening of the cave entrance, confirming both its geophysically determined location and its estimated depth. The application of an advanced geophysical method was therefore proven successful in providing a solution to this specific case in karst exploration and an important cave was saved.

Geomorphological Dating of Pleistocene Conglomerates in Central Slovenia Based on Spatial Analyses of Dolines Using LiDAR and Ground Penetrating Radar

On Kranjsko polje in central Slovenia, carbonate conglomerates have been dated to several Pleistocene glacial phases by relative dating based on the morphostratigrafic mapping and borehole data, and by paleomagnetic and 10Be analyses. To define how the age of conglomerates determines the geomorphological characteristics of karst surface features, morphometrical and distributive spatial analyses of dolines were performed on three test sites including old, middle, and young Pleistocene conglomerates. As dolines on conglomerates are covered by a thick soil cover and show a strong human influence, the ground penetrating radar (GPR) method was first applied to select dolines appropriate for further morphometrical and distributive analyses. A considerable modification of natural morphology was revealed for cultivated dolines, excluding this type of depression from spatial analyses. Input parameters for spatial analyses (doline rim and deepest point) were manually extracted from the 1 × 1 m grid digital elevation model (DEM) originating from the high-resolution LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data. Basic geomorphological characteristics, namely circularity index, planar size, depth, and density index of dolines were calculated for each relative age of conglomerates, and common characteristics were determined from these data to establish a general surface typology for a particular conglomerate. The obtained surface typologies were spatially extrapolated to the wider conglomerate area in central Slovenia to test the existent geological dating. Spatial analyses generally confirmed previous dating, while in four areas the geomorphological characteristics of dolines did not correspond to the existing dating and require further revision and modification. Doline populations exhibit specific and common morphometrical and distributive characteristics on conglomerates of a particular age and can be a reliable and fast indicator for their dating.

Application of Ground Penetrating Radar Supported by Mineralogical-Geochemical Methods for Mapping Unroofed Cave Sediments

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) using a special unshielded 50 MHz Rough Terrain Antenna (RTA) in combination with a shielded 250 MHz antenna was used to study the capability of this geophysical method for detecting cave sediments. Allochthonous cave sediments found in the study area of Lanski vrh (W Slovenia) are now exposed on the karst surface in the so-called “unroofed caves” due to a general lowering of the surface (denudation of carbonate rocks) and can provide valuable evidence of the karst development. In the first phase, GPR profiles were measured at three test locations, where cave sediments are clearly evident on the surface and appear with flowstone. It turned out that cave sediments are clearly visible on GPR radargrams as areas of strong signal attenuation. Based on this finding, GPR profiling was used in several other places where direct indicators of unroofed caves or other indicators for speleogenesis are not present due to strong surface reshaping. The influence of various field conditions, especially water content, on GPR measurements was also analysed by comparing radargrams measured in various field conditions. Further mineralogical-geochemical analyses were conducted to better understand the factors that influence the attenuation in the area of cave sediments. Samples of cave sediments and soils on carbonate rocks (rendzina) were taken for X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyses to compare the mineral and geochemical compositions of both sediments. Results show that cave sediments contain higher amounts of clay minerals and iron/aluminium oxides/hydroxides which, in addition to the thickness of cave sediments, can play an important role in the depth of penetration. Differences in the mineral composition also lead to water retention in cave sediments even through dry periods which additionally contribute to increased attenuation with respect to surrounding soils. The GPR method has proven to be reliable for locating areas of cave sediments at the surface and to determine their spatial extent, which is very important in delineating the geometry of unroofed cave systems. GPR thus proved to be a very valuable method in supporting geological and geomorphological mapping for a more comprehensive recognition of unroofed cave systems. These are important for understanding karstification and speleogenetic processes that influenced the formation of former underground caves and can help us reconstruct the direction of former underground water flows.

A cross-border regional earthquake early warning system: PRESTo@CE3RN

Since 2002 the Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di Geofisica Sperimentale (OGS) in Udine (Italy), the Agencija Republike Slovenije za Okolje (ARSO) in Ljubljana (Slovenia) and the Zentralanstalt für Meteorologie und Geodynamik (ZAMG) in Vienna (Austria), are collecting, analyzing, archiving and exchanging seismic data in real time, initially in the framework of the EU Interreg IIIa Italia-Austria project “Trans-national seismological networks in the South-Eastern Alps”. As outcome of the successful cooperation, in the 2013 OGS, ARSO and ZAMG decided to officially merge their seismic monitoring efforts into the “Central and Eastern European Earthquake Research Network—CE3RN”. This work reports the results of a nine-month real-time test of the earthquake early warning (EEW) algorithm probabilistic and evolutionary early warning system carried out at the CE3RN. The study allowed identifying the actions to be implemented in order to let the CE3RN become in the next future an efficient cross-border EEW system.

Low-frequency ground penetrating radar survey for limestone - flysch thrust-fault analysis (Karstic thrust edge, SW Slovenia)

The new railway route Divača - Koper is planned to cut through the Karstic thrust edge, a prominent geomorphologic step within the active Adria - Dinarides thrust zone. This represents a major obstacle for the railway construction, therefore it is crucial to understand the structural properties and the geometry of the thrust-fault planes within the area. This knowledge is also important for the calculation of exploitable material in a limestone quarry. For determining thrusts with a low-angle inclination we evaluated the use of the low frequency ground penetrating radar (GPR). We carried out a survey in the active Črnotiče quarry with a 50 MHz rough terrain antenna (RTA), correlated the GPR results with borehole data and constructed a precise 3D model of the Socerb thrust-fault plane. In addition to acquiring accurate structural information about the thrust-fault plane and dip of the strata, we were also able to detect different karst features. When the excavations in the quarry reached the thrust-fault in one part, we found it outcrops exactly where we had previously defined its position. We conducted an additional GPR survey using the 50 MHz RTA as well as a 250 MHz antenna, and obtained new information about the extent and the geometry of the Socerb thrust-fault plane.

Application of Ground penetrating radar for investigating sediment-filled surface karst features (Krk Island, Croatia)

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) has been widely used in the last decade for investigating various issues in karst environments. Valley-like depressions and other sediment-filled irregular features on karst surface in the south-eastern part of Krk Island, Croatia, were noticed but their genetic mechanism could not be clarified only by geomorphological field observations and the analysis of orthophoto images. It was unclear which processes (surface and/or underground) prevailed during the formation of the investigated surface features, so the GPR method was used to study different karst features and their interconnections. To test the applicability of the GPR method for detecting such features, two different antennae, a 250 MHz shielded and a 50 MHz unshielded Rough Terrain Antenna (RTA), were applied to estimate the suitability of various frequencies in certain karst environments. On the basis of additional information obtained from GPR data, it become clear that the studied sediment-filled surface karst features are result of the denudation processes. Furthermore, linkages between surface sediment-filled features also became apparent, which prove the existence of an unroofed cave. The linkages are expressed as areas with stronger attenuation on GPR radargrams due to different electromagnetic properties of the sediments that fill up denuded structures and the mainly bare karst surface that surrounds them. These findings indicate that the investigated sediment-filled surface features of various shapes and sizes belong to one former underground cave system which is now exposed on the recent surface as a result of denudation.

Earthquake-Induced Rockfalls Caused by 1998 Mw5.6 Earthquake in Krn Mountains (NW Slovenia) and ESI 2007 Intensity Scale

The 12 April 1998 Mw5.6 Krn Mountains earthquake with a maximum intensity of VII-VIII on the EMS-98 scale caused extensive environmental effects in the Julian Alps. The application of intensity scales based mainly on damage to buildings was limited in the epicentral area, because it is a high mountain area and thus very sparsely populated. On the other hand the effects on the natural environment were prominent and widespread. These facts and the introduction of a new Environmental Seismic Intensity scale (ESI 2007) motivated a research aimed to evaluate the applicability of ESI 2007 to this event. All environmental effects were described, classified and evaluated by a field survey, analysis of aerial images and analysis of macroseismic questionnaires. These effects include rockfalls, landslides, secondary ground cracks and hydrogeological effects. It was realized that only rockfalls (78 were registered) are widespread enough to be used for intensity assessment, together with the total size of affected area, which is around 180 km2. Rockfalls were classified into five categories according to their volume. The volumes of the two largest rockfalls were quantitatively assessed by comparison of Digital Elevation Models to be 15 × 106 and 3 × 106 m3. Distribution of very large, large and medium size rockfalls has clearly defined an elliptical zone, elongated parallel to the strike of the seismogenic fault, for which the intensity VII-VIII was assessed. This isoseismal line was compared to the tentative EMS-98 isoseism derived from damage-related macroseismic data. The VII-VIII EMS-98 isoseism was defined by four points alone, but a similar elongated shape was obtained. This isoseism is larger than the corresponding ESI 2007 isoseism, but its size is strongly controlled by a single intensity point lying quite far from others, at the location where local amplification is likely. The ESI 2007 scale has proved to be an effective tool for intensity assessment in sparsely populated mountain regions not only for very strong, but for moderate earthquakes as well.

Macroseismic investigations of the geological site effects on intensities of selected earthquakes in greater Ljubljana area

Ljubljana is one of three regions with the highest seismic hazard in Slovenia. In addition soft sediments in the Ljubljana basin have a strong influence on seismic ground motion. We used macroseismic data to investigate the influence of local geological structure on earthquake intensities in greater Ljubljana area. We determined intensities for eleven earthquakes according to ground classification based on Eurocode 8 standard (EC8). The results showed a systematic increase in observed seismic intensities, determined according to European Macroseismic Scale (EMS-98), as the seismogeological characteristics of the ground deteriorated. Only one ground type (D) showed slightly lower intensities than expected. This may be due to some unrevealed geological and other factors, or because of very limited macroseismic data available for this particular ground type.