Andreja Bubić

Prediction, cognition and the brain

The term “predictive brain” depicts one of the most relevant concepts in cognitive neuroscience which emphasizes the importance of “looking into the future”, namely prediction, preparation, anticipation, prospection or expectations in various cognitive domains. Analogously, it has been suggested that predictive processing represents one of the fundamental principles of neural computations and that errors of prediction may be crucial for driving neural and cognitive processes as well as behavior. This review discusses research areas which have recognized the importance of prediction and introduces the relevant terminology and leading theories in the field in an attempt to abstract some generative mechanisms of predictive processing. Furthermore, we discuss the process of testing the validity of postulated expectations by matching these to the realized events and compare the subsequent processing of events which confirm to those which violate the initial predictions. We conclude by suggesting that, although a lot is known about this type of processing, there are still many open issues which need to be resolved before a unified theory of predictive processing can be postulated with regard to both cognitive and neural functioning.

Violation of expectation: Neural correlates reflect bases of prediction

Setting perceptual expectations can be based on different sources of information that determine which functional networks will be involved in implementing preparatory top–down influences and dealing with situations in which expectations are violated. The goal of the present study was to investigate and directly compare brain activations triggered by violating expectations within two different task contexts. In the serial prediction task, participants monitored ordered perceptual sequences for predefined sequential deviants. In contrast, the target detection task entailed a presentation of stimuli which had to be monitored for predefined nonsequential deviants. Detection of sequential deviants triggered an increase of activity in premotor and cerebellar components of the “standard” sequencing network and activations in additional frontal areas initially not involved in sequencing. This pattern of activity reflects the detection of a mismatch between the expected and presented stimuli, updating of the underlying sequence representation (i.e., forward model), and elaboration of the violation. In contrast, target detection elicited activations in posterior temporal and parietal areas, reflecting an increase in perceptual processing evoked by the nonsequential deviant. The obtained results suggest that distinct functional networks involved in detecting deviants in different contexts reflect the origin and the nature of expectations being violated.

Differences in processing violations of sequential and feature regularities as revealed by visual event-related brain potentials

Identifying novel or unexpected events which violate predictions based on the regularities extracted from our environment is crucially important for adaptive behavior. However, the exact dynamics of processing such events is not well understood. Furthermore, it is not known in which degree the process of deviant detection differs across contexts and how much it depends on the characteristics of deviant events. This issue was addressed by the present study which used event-related potentials (ERPs) in order to investigate the dynamics of identifying two types of deviants presented within the same visual setting. These events violated expectations based on two different types of information contained within each trial, either temporal order of stimulus presentation (sequential deviant) or physical attributes shared by the majority of individual stimuli (feature deviant). The obtained results indicate a certain degree of similarity in detecting two deviant types which, when task-relevant, both elicited N2 and P3b event-related potential components. However, significant differences across different stages of their processing were also identified. First, only feature, but not sequential deviants elicited an N1 enhancement. Furthermore, N2 and P3b responses elicited by sequential and feature deviants differed in their latency and topography and, in case of P3b, amplitude. Taken together, these results suggest that the dynamics of detecting different types of deviants strongly depends on the specific characteristics of such events. Furthermore, the identified differences in the topography of N2 and P3b indicate distinct mechanisms underlying several stages of their processing.

Semantic memory as the root of imagination

“Imagination is what makes our sensory experience meaningful, enabling us to interpret and make sense of it, whether from a conventional perspective or from a fresh, original, individual one. It is what makes perception more than the mere physical stimulation of sense organs. It also produces mental imagery, visual and otherwise, which is what makes it possible for us to think outside the confines of our present perceptual reality, to consider memories of the past and possibilities for the future, and to weigh alternatives against one another. Thus, imagination makes possible all our thinking about what is, what has been, and, perhaps most important, what might be.”—Nigel J. T. Thomas (2004, as cited in Manu, 2006, p. 47)1. Investigations of the information processing mechanisms that underlie imaginative thought typically focus on a single branch of imagination, such as prospection, mental imagery or creativity, and are often generalized as being insightful to understanding the workings of imagination in general. In reality, however, there is very little in the way of theoretical or empirical exchange between the scientific communities that conduct research within the different domains of imagination. As a result, the research impetus in each of the sub-domains may be skewed to the pursuit of hypotheses that are not particularly viable in terms of understanding imagination as a whole. An example of this is pegging the roots of imagination to the processes of episodic memory—a reasonable assumption to make based on studies of episodic prospection. However, the associated findings and theoretical conclusions that follow are not entirely consistent with the literature on the mechanisms underlying creativity (Bubic and Abraham, 2014), which is another core realm of imagination. In an effort to promote interchange across the frontiers of imagination, in this Opinion Article we put forward the idea that all aspects of imagination emerge from semantic memory with increasingly higher-order levels of imaginative information processing emanating from and interacting with existing systems, eventually expanding beyond these to form new systems (Figure ​(Figure1).1). We compare the associated neurocognitive findings and assumptions in terms of their fit with current knowledge in other fields of imagination and discuss their implications for reformulating hypotheses regarding imagination as a whole. Figure 1 An informal illustration of how imaginative processes emerge from and expand beyond semantic memory operations.

Exploring the detection of associatively novel events using fMRI

Identifying and evaluating events which are novel in a particular environment is crucially important for adaptive behavior. These events are often not just novel, as they typically violate expectations which may be formulated based on numerous features of our surroundings, one of which includes the ordinal structure (temporal order) of relevant stimuli. Events which violate such expectations, namely sequential deviants, constitute one category of associatively novel stimuli. The present event‐related fMRI study investigated the detection of sequential deviants presented within three types of equivalently organized, attended visual sequences which differed in stimulus dimensions relevant for defining the sequential structure (position, rhythm, and object identity). Presenting deviants within perceptual sequences defined by position and rhythm stimulus properties triggered comparable patterns of activations within the lateral parietal, premotor, and prefrontal regions. However, the activations identified in the context of position sequences showed a more dorsal distribution when compared to those in rhythm sequences. In contrast, detection of deviants within object sequences was supported by right‐lateralized parietal and temporal cortices. Thus, although the obtained results indicate similarities and partial overlap in activations triggered by specific pairs of deviants, differences in their processing were also revealed. This suggests that the general task context and specific stimulus features which define the deviant itself influence which brain regions within a widespread network incorporating lateral prefrontal, anterior premotor, and posterior (mainly lateral parietal) areas will become engaged in its processing. Hum Brain Mapp, 2011.

Large-Scale Brain Plasticity Following Blindness and the Use of Sensory Substitution Devices

Neuroplasticity, or the brain’s ability to modify its structure and function at all levels, is variable over the course of life. Although it is most pronounced during early development, there is a growing consensus that a remarkable degree of flexibility is retained even during adulthood. In this chapter we explore the topic of brain plasticity, with special emphasis on large-scale plasticity following sensory loss and the potential for later rehabilitation. We concentrate on vision and blindness because visual functions, which are so important to humans, are subserved by vast parts of the cerebral cortex which become substantially reorganized to compensate for the lack of vision. This compensation manifests itself in different types of neuroplastic changes reflected in the altered cognitive functions and abilities observed in the blind. Understanding and controlling the mechanisms underlying these changes can have major clinical implications, as these may strongly influence the outcomes and success rates of visual rehabilitation. Currently the best hopes for regaining functional vision are provided by rehabilitation methods employing sensory substitution devices (SSDs) which supply visual information to the blind through other (auditory or tactile) modalities, and more invasive sensory restoration techniques which attempt to convey visual information directly to the visual pathways. These techniques can be exploited fully only through a solid understanding of the effects, maximal potential, and limits of brain plasticity. By attempting to send visual information to a “visual” cortex that has already been reorganized following the onset of blindness and teaching this area how to “see,” these methods rely on our ability to understand, channel, and control the mechanisms which enabled the brain to make its original adaptation to lost sensory input.

Development of abstract mathematical reasoning: the case of algebra

Algebra typically represents the students’ first encounter with abstract mathematical reasoning and it therefore causes significant difficulties for students who still reason concretely. The aim of the present study was to investigate the developmental trajectory of the students’ ability to solve simple algebraic equations. 311 participants between the ages of 13 and 17 were given a computerized test of equation rearrangement. Equations consisted of an unknown and two other elements (numbers or letters), and the operations of multiplication/division. The obtained results showed that younger participants are less accurate and slower in solving equations with letters (symbols) than those with numbers. This difference disappeared for older participants (16–17 years), suggesting that they had reached an abstract reasoning level, at least for this simple task. A corresponding conclusion arises from the analysis of their strategies which suggests that younger participants mostly used concrete strategies such as inserting numbers, while older participants typically used more abstract, rule-based strategies. These results indicate that the development of algebraic thinking is a process which unfolds over a long period of time. In agreement with previous research, we can conclude that, on average, children at the age of 15–16 transition from using concrete to abstract strategies while solving the algebra problems addressed within the present study. A better understanding of the timing and speed of students’ transition from concrete arithmetic reasoning to abstract algebraic reasoning might help in designing better curricula and teaching materials that would ease that transition.

Motor foundations of higher cognition: Similarities and differences in processing regular and violated perceptual sequences of different specificity

Processing perceptual sequences relies on the motor system, which is able to simulate the dynamics of the environment by developing internal representations of external events and using them to predict the incoming stimuli. Although it has previously been demonstrated that such models may incorporate predictions based on exact stimulus properties and single stimulus dimensions, it is not known whether they can also support abstract predictions pertaining to the level of stimulus categories. This issue was investigated within the present event‐related functional magnetic resonance imaging study, which compared the processing of perceptual sequences of different specificity, namely those in which the sequential structure was based on the order of presentation of individual stimuli (token), and those in which such structure was defined by stimulus categories (type). The results obtained indicate a comparable engagement of the basic premotor–parietal network in processing both specific and categorical perceptual sequences. However, type sequences additionally elicited activations within the lateral prefrontal, occipital and posterior temporal regions that supported categorization in this task context. Introducing sequential deviants into token sequences activated parietotemporal and ventrolateral frontal cortices, whereas a less pronounced overall response, dominated by lateral prefrontal activation, was elicited by violations introduced into type sequences. Overall, the findings obtained suggest that, although forward models in perception may be able to incorporate expectations of lower specificity when compared to the motor domain, such processing is crucially dependent on additional contributions from lateral prefrontal as well as inferior occipital and temporal cortices that support categorization occurring in such a dynamic context.

The Role of Emotional Stability and Competence in Young Adolescents' Career Judgments.

A transition from elementary to high school represents a very profound change and a potential source of stress, as it often requires young adolescents to make significant professional decisions. This topic was the focus of the present study in which 303 Croatian students attending their final year of elementary school completed measures of career decision self-efficacy, emotional stability, emotional competence, and concerns regarding the upcoming transition. The results indicated emotional competence as a statistically significant predictor of career decision self-efficacy, whereas emotional stability was revealed as a significant predictor of career concerns. Furthermore, a moderating effect of gender and a mediating role of career decision self-efficacy were revealed in this context. These findings provide novel evidence regarding the complex relationship between individuals’ vocational self-beliefs and emotional processing and may be informative for vocational guidance interventions targeted at young adolescents undergoing similar educational transitions.

One test, five scoring procedures: different ways of approaching the cognitive reflection test

ABSTRACT Although the cognitive reflection test (CRT) represents a frequently used instrument within the field of judgement and decision-making, its scope and detailed characteristics are still not well understood. Therefore, the present article discusses 5 different ways of scoring the CRT that include the regular CRT scoring procedure (CRT-Regular), adding up the intuitive answers (CRT-Intuitive), calculating the proportion of intuitive in total incorrect answers (CRT-Proportion Intuitive), scoring only non-intuitive answers irrespective of their correctness (CRT-Reflection) and calculating the proportion of correct in total non-intuitive answers (CRT-Calculation). We conducted 2 studies aimed at investigating the associations among these scoring techniques and their relationships with thinking dispositions, specifically the need for cognition, faith in intuition, superstitious thinking, maximising and post-choice regret. The results indicate that thinking dispositions play a modest role in explaining the performance on the CRT. The specific associations among the investigated dispositions and different CRT scoring techniques are discussed.