Andres Castellanos-Gomez

Fast and broadband photoresponse of few-layer black phosphorus field-effect transistors.

Few-layer black phosphorus, a new elemental two-dimensional (2D) material recently isolated by mechanical exfoliation, is a high-mobility layered semiconductor with a direct bandgap that is predicted to strongly depend on the number of layers, from 0.35 eV (bulk) to 2.0 eV (single layer). Therefore, black phosphorus is an appealing candidate for tunable photodetection from the visible to the infrared part of the spectrum. We study the photoresponse of field-effect transistors (FETs) made of few-layer black phosphorus (3-8 nm thick), as a function of excitation wavelength, power, and frequency. In the dark state, the black phosphorus FETs can be tuned both in hole and electron doping regimes allowing for ambipolar operation. We measure mobilities in the order of 100 cm(2)/V s and a current ON/OFF ratio larger than 10(3). Upon illumination, the black phosphorus transistors show a response to excitation wavelengths from the visible region up to 940 nm and a rise time of about 1 ms, demonstrating broadband and fast detection. The responsivity reaches 4.8 mA/W, and it could be drastically enhanced by engineering a detector based on a PN junction. The ambipolar behavior coupled to the fast and broadband photodetection make few-layer black phosphorus a promising 2D material for photodetection across the visible and near-infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Isolation and characterization of few-layer black phosphorus

This is the post-peer reviewed version of the following article: A. Castellanos-Gomez et al. “Isolation and characterization of few-layer black phosphorus”. 2D Matererials, 2014, 1(2) 025001 doi:10.1088/2053-1583/1/2/025001 Which has been published in final form at: http://iopscience.iop.org/2053-1583/1/2/025001

Elastic properties of freely suspended MoS2 nanosheets.

We study the elastic deformation of few layers (5 to 25) thick freely suspended MoS2 nanosheets by means of a nanoscopic version of a bending test experiment, carried out with the tip of an atomic force microscope. The Youngs modulus of these nanosheets is extremely high (E = 0.33 TPa), comparable to that of graphene oxide, and the deflections are reversible up to tens of nanometers.

Deterministic transfer of two-dimensional materials by all-dry viscoelastic stamping

The deterministic transfer of two-dimensional crystals constitutes a crucial step towards the fabrication of heterostructures based on the artificial stacking of two-dimensional materials. Moreover, controlling the positioning of two-dimensional crystals facilitates their integration in complex devices, which enables the exploration of novel applications and the discovery of new phenomena in these materials. To date, deterministic transfer methods rely on the use of sacrificial polymer layers and wet chemistry to some extent. Here, we develop an all-dry transfer method that relies on viscoelastic stamps and does not employ any wet chemistry step. This is found to be very advantageous to freely suspend these materials as there are no capillary forces involved in the process. Moreover, the whole fabrication process is quick, efficient, clean and it can be performed with high yield.

Local strain engineering in atomically thin MoS2.

Controlling the bandstructure through local-strain engineering is an exciting avenue for tailoring optoelectronic properties of materials at the nanoscale. Atomically thin materials are particularly well-suited for this purpose because they can withstand extreme nonhomogeneous deformations before rupture. Here, we study the effect of large localized strain in the electronic bandstructure of atomically thin MoS2. Using photoluminescence imaging, we observe a strain-induced reduction of the direct bandgap and funneling of photogenerated excitons toward regions of higher strain. To understand these results, we develop a nonuniform tight-binding model to calculate the electronic properties of MoS2 nanolayers with complex and realistic local strain geometries, finding good agreement with our experimental results.

Photovoltaic effect in few-layer black phosphorus PN junctions defined by local electrostatic gating

In conventional photovoltaic solar cells, photogenerated carriers are extracted by the built-in electric field of a semiconductor PN junction, defined by ionic dopants. In atomically thin semiconductors, the doping level can be controlled by the field effect, enabling the implementation of electrically tunable PN junctions. However, most two-dimensional (2D) semiconductors do not show ambipolar transport, which is necessary to realize PN junctions. Few-layer black phosphorus (b-P) is a recently isolated 2D semiconductor with direct bandgap, high mobility, large current on/off ratios and ambipolar operation. Here we fabricate few-layer b-P field-effect transistors with split gates and hexagonal boron nitride dielectric. We demonstrate electrostatic control of the local charge carrier type and density in the device. Illuminating a gate-defined PN junction, we observe zero-bias photocurrents and significant open-circuit voltages due to the photovoltaic effect. The small bandgap of the material allows power generation for illumination wavelengths up to 940 nm, attractive for energy harvesting in the near-infrared.

Laser-Thinning of MoS2: On Demand Generation of a Single-Layer Semiconductor

Single-layer MoS(2) is an attractive semiconducting analogue of graphene that combines high mechanical flexibility with a large direct bandgap of 1.8 eV. On the other hand, bulk MoS(2) is an indirect bandgap semiconductor similar to silicon, with a gap of 1.2 eV, and therefore deterministic preparation of single MoS(2) layers is a crucial step toward exploiting the large direct bandgap of monolayer MoS(2) in electronic, optoelectronic, and photovoltaic applications. Although mechanical and chemical exfoliation methods can be used to obtain high quality MoS(2) single layers, the lack of control in the thickness, shape, size, and position of the flakes limits their usefulness. Here we present a technique for controllably thinning multilayered MoS(2) down to a single-layer two-dimensional crystal using a laser. We generate single layers in arbitrary shapes and patterns with feature sizes down to 200 nm and show that the resulting two-dimensional crystals have optical and electronic properties comparable to that of pristine exfoliated MoS(2) single layers.

Environmental instability of few-layer black phosphorus

We study the environmental instability of mechanically exfoliated few-layer black phosphorus (BP). From continuous measurements of flake topography over several days, we observe an increase of over 200% in volume due to the condensation of moisture from air. We find that long term exposure to ambient conditions results in a layer-by-layer etching process of BP flakes. Interestingly, flakes can be etched down to single layer (phosphorene) thicknesses. BPʼs strong affinity for water greatly modifies the performance of fabricated field-effect transistors (FETs) measured in ambient conditions. Upon exposure to air, we differentiate between two timescales for changes in BP FET transfer characteristics: a short timescale (minutes) in which a shift in the threshold voltage occurs due to physisorbed oxygen and nitrogen, and a long timescale (hours) in which strong p-type doping occurs from water absorption. Continuous measurements of BP FETs in air reveal eventual degradation and break-down of the channel material after several days due to the layer-by-layer etching process.

Large and Tunable Photothermoelectric Effect in Single-Layer MoS2

We study the photoresponse of single-layer MoS(2) field-effect transistors by scanning photocurrent microscopy. We find that, unlike in many other semiconductors, the photocurrent generation in single-layer MoS(2) is dominated by the photothermoelectric effect and not by the separation of photoexcited electron-hole pairs across the Schottky barriers at the MoS(2)/electrode interfaces. We observe a large value for the Seebeck coefficient for single-layer MoS(2) that by an external electric field can be tuned between -4 × 10(2) and -1 × 10(5) μV K(-1). This large and tunable Seebeck coefficient of the single-layer MoS(2) paves the way to new applications of this material such as on-chip thermopower generation and waste thermal energy harvesting.

Photocurrent generation with two-dimensional van der Waals semiconductors

Two-dimensional (2D) materials have attracted a great deal of interest in recent years. This family of materials allows for the realization of versatile electronic devices and holds promise for next-generation (opto)electronics. Their electronic properties strongly depend on the number of layers, making them interesting from a fundamental standpoint. For electronic applications, semiconducting 2D materials benefit from sizable mobilities and large on/off ratios, due to the large modulation achievable via the gate field-effect. Moreover, being mechanically strong and flexible, these materials can withstand large strain (>10%) before rupture, making them interesting for strain engineering and flexible devices. Even in their single layer form, semiconducting 2D materials have demonstrated efficient light absorption, enabling large responsivity in photodetectors. Therefore, semiconducting layered 2D materials are strong candidates for optoelectronic applications, especially for photodetection. Here, we review the state-of-the-art in photodetectors based on semiconducting 2D materials, focusing on the transition metal dichalcogenides, novel van der Waals materials, black phosphorus, and heterostructures.