Andrew Beer

Asymmetry in Judgments of Personality: Others Are Less Differentiated Than the Self

Previous evidence suggests that judges rely more heavily on implicit personality theories when they rate relatively unfamiliar others. One further implication of this evidence is that correlations among traits should be stronger in other ratings than in self-ratings, particularly when (a) judges lack trait relevant information and/or (b) motivational accuracy is low. We tested these predictions by comparing self- versus other ratings on the Big Five in two studies. Study 1 used previously published data to demonstrate clear self/peer differences in the average relations between Big Five dimensions (excluding Extraversion). Study 2 was based on self- versus other ratings in 12 samples. Overall, the intercorrelations among Big Five traits (excluding Extraversion) tended to be significantly stronger in peer ratings than in self-ratings. The most consistent effect involved the relation between Neuroticism and Agreeableness (overall r=-.43 and -.29 in the peer ratings and self-ratings, respectively). In addition, as expected, the degree of relation among traits varied depending upon the type of target being rated (i.e., spouse vs. dating partner vs. friend vs. stranger). Implications of these findings are discussed.

The Role of Active Assortment in Spousal Similarity

Previous research has established the existence of active assortment, that is, a preference for similarity in a potential mate. Few studies, however, have directly related mate preferences to dyadic similarity by examining them in the same participants. We collected both similarity and mate preference data in two studies: undergraduate students (N = 519) and newlyweds (N = 335). In both studies, women placed a higher value on desirable personality characteristics (e.g., higher Conscientiousness and Agreeableness, lower Neuroticism) than did men. Nevertheless, our data also provided strong evidence of consensual mate preferences: Men and women both desired partners who were agreeable, conscientious, emotionally stable, intelligent, and physically attractive; furthermore, participants desired partners who were better (e.g., more agreeable and attractive) than they were. In contrast, attitudinal variables such as religiousness and political orientation displayed much weaker consensus but showed significant dyadic similarity in both samples; similarity coefficients for personality tended to be positive, but lower. Finally, analyses revealed a direct link between actual and desired similarity: Couples displayed the strongest similarity on those variables for which participants expressed the strongest preference for similarity. Our findings strongly suggest that active assortment is partly responsible for dyadic similarity.

Family Intervention and Health Care Costs for Kansas Medicaid Patients with Schizophrenia

Despite a number of studies investigating the effect of pharmacotherapy on treatment costs for schizophrenia patients, there has been little attention given to the effect of family intervention. In this study, data from the Kansas Medicaid system were used to analyze healthcare costs for 164 schizophrenia patients who had participated in family intervention. Structural equation modeling was used to test two competing views of the role of family intervention in treatment. The results showed that a model including direct and indirect effects of family intervention provided a better fit to the data. Family intervention had a significant indirect effect on general medical costs (through other psychological treatment) that showed a savings of

The Individual and Group Loyalty Scales (IGLS): Construction and Preliminary Validation

586 for each unit increase in the provision of these services. In addition, the total indirect effects for family intervention showed a

Self–Other Agreement and Assumed Similarity in Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Trait Affect Distinguishing the Effects of Form and Content

580 savings for general medical costs and

Similarity, agreement, and assumed similarity in proxy end-of-life decision making.

796 for hospitalization costs (for each unit increase).

Comparative Personality Judgments: Replication and Extension of Robust Findings in Personality Perception Using an Alternative Method

Trait loyalty has received virtually no attention from researchers; consequently, the basic goal of this research was to create a measure of interpersonal loyalty. Principal factor analyses of an initial pool of items revealed 2 factors: Individual Loyalty (e.g., “I stand by my friends, even when they make mistakes”) and Group Loyalty (e.g., “I am loyal to my country”). Analyses of a revised item pool identified the same 2 factors in a second sample. Scales based on these factors were internally consistent and only moderately related to one another. Additional analyses indicated that both scales (a) were stable over time; (b) showed moderate to strong self-peer agreement; (c) positively correlated with conscientiousness, agreeableness, altruism, and positive emotionality; and (d) negatively related to an avoidant attachment style. However, these associations all were moderate in magnitude (in fact, none was as high as |.40|), indicating that the Individual and Group Loyalty Scales tap unique variance that is not captured by existing instruments.

National Character Does Not Reflect Mean Personality Trait Levels in 49 Cultures

Trait Negative Affect (NA) and Positive Affect (PA) are strongly associated with Neuroticism and Extraversion, respectively. Nevertheless, measures of the former tend to show substantially weaker self–other agreement—and stronger assumed similarity correlations—than scales assessing the latter. The current study separated the effects of item content versus format on agreement and assumed similarity using two different sets of Neuroticism and Extraversion measures and two different indicators of NA and PA (N = 381 newlyweds). Neuroticism and Extraversion consistently showed stronger agreement than NA and PA; in addition, however, scales with more elaborated items yielded significantly higher agreement correlations than those based on single adjectives. Conversely, the trait affect scales yielded stronger assumed similarity correlations than the personality scales; these coefficients were strongest for the adjectival measures of trait affect. Thus, our data establish a significant role for both content and format in assumed similarity and self–other agreement.

Personality judgment at zero acquaintance: agreement, assumed similarity, and implicit simplicity.

Medical decisions near the end of life are often made by proxies who can be inaccurate in their judgments of patient preferences. Given that accuracy in surrogate decision making is an important goal in end-of-life decision making, and in light of that previously seen levels of accuracy reflect substantial disagreement, error, or both, this study examined both relationship and individual factors that potentially affect surrogate accuracy. Specifically, this study examined similarity, agreement, and assumed similarity-a process whereby raters use their own traits and preferences to rate another person-in spousal ratings of end-of-life treatment. This study expands on previous research by examining the potential influence of relationship factors and assumed similarity on end-of-life decision making among a sample of newlyweds. Newly married couples (n = 197) completed self and spouse measures of hypothetical end-of-life preferences and scales assessing marital satisfaction, personality, and attitudes. Results indicate a moderate level of similarity on husband and wife self-rated end-of-life treatment preferences (rs = .18-.29) and a moderate level of agreement between self and proxy ratings (rs = .17-.41). The largest correlations were seen between self ratings and proxy ratings (e.g., husband self ratings and husband proxy ratings of wife preferences, rs = .46-.69), reflecting strong assumed similarity in proxy ratings. For wives, similarity with husbands on a few attitudinal variables (i.e., spirituality, moral strictness, and conservatism) influenced proxy accuracy. Recognizing the potential impact of personal preferences on proxy ratings, as well as the potential influence of relationship factors, may help improve proxy accuracy and end-of-life care for patients and families.

The effects of information and exposure on self-other agreement

The scientific study of accuracy in personality judgment typically involves the utilization of rating scales to make absolute decisions about a target individual. Although this method has many merits, it restricts some experimental options and is further removed from ecological validity than one would desire. These studies represent an attempt to develop an alternative methodology for the study of personality judgment—specifically for use in explorations of judgment process. A series of photo sets containing pictures of 3 individuals, each representing a different level of a specific personality trait, was created. The participants task was to select high and low scorers on a dimension from the photos. Study 1 demonstrates that people can select targets with extreme scores from a photo lineup at a rate better than chance across several personality dimensions. Study 2 shows that this ability has some degree of temporal consistency. Study 3 represents an improvement on the general method via enhanced criteria for stimulus selection, incorporating both self and peer reports.