Andrew Holden

In need of new environmental ethics for tourism

Abstract The principal aim of this paper is to evaluate the actions of tourism stakeholders towards nature within the context of environmental ethics. Through an understanding of the ethical stance taken by stakeholders towards nature, it becomes possible to comprehend actions and evaluate their suitability. The conceptual literature in the field of environmental ethics is utilized to analyze the policy statements and actions of stakeholders. The main conclusion is that the majority of them now pursue an ethic of conservation vis-a-vis an instrumental use of nature. However there seems to be little desire for a further shift to a non-anthropocentric environmental ethic.

Post‐colonial Pakistani Mobilities: the Embodiment of the ‘Myth of Return’ in Tourism

This paper examines post‐migration mobilities of a Pakistani diaspora (Luton, UK) by identifying the embodiment of the ‘myth of return’ in tourism participation to the homeland, Pakistan. The interpretive ethnographic accounts re‐consider the ‘myth of return’ concerning the emigration and immigration nexus. The continuation of traditions such as duties and obligations transmitted through the myth in tourism are analysed. The paper argues that the ‘myth’ is imperative to understanding the meanings the Pakistani community attaches to tourism motivations. The conclusion argues that the ties between post‐colonial diasporas and the homelands can be explained through post‐migration tourism mobilities.

Tourism and Poverty Reduction: An Interpretation by the Poor of Elmina, Ghana

Over the past decade, academic research into the use of tourism as a contributor to poverty reduction has grown considerably; however, there are few insights on how the poor perceive the connections between poverty and tourism. Based upon interpretive and participatory fieldwork with the poor of Elmina in Ghana, this paper explores their understanding and constructions of poverty and how they comprehend tourism as a provider of alternative livelihood opportunities. It emerged that poverty is understood as a multi-dimensional construct, including low and irregular incomes, depletion of natural resources, a lack of access to social assets and educational opportunities, and denial of meaningful participation in society. At a time of structural readjustment in Elminas economy, the potential of tourism to enhance livelihoods and reduce poverty is high, but remains hindered by major barriers to entrepreneurship development and employment within the sector, which is worsened by the lack of access to credit, exclusion from decision-making, poor skills and excessive bureaucracy. It became evident that a focus on the use of tourism for macroeconomic gains will not necessarily benefit the poor. They need to be included in tourism policy and practice, not only as a target group, but also in participatory mechanisms to ensure the appropriate use of tourism for poverty reduction. It is argued that it is only through a better understanding of poor peoples experiences of poverty, that tourism can be used more meaningfully as a strategy for its alleviation.

Exploring Stakeholders' Perceptions of Sustainable Tourism Development in the Annapurna Conservation Area: Issues and Challenge

Utilising an interpretive research paradigm with stakeholders in the Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), this paper presents the findings of their perceptions and evaluations of sustainable tourism development. This understanding is important for assessing the future use of tourism for sustainable development in the area. Established in 1986, ACA has gained plaudits and awards for its successes in conservation and the enacting of a ‘bottom-up’ philosophy of planning and development. Based upon the collection and analysis of rich and informed data, it was found that although stakeholders shared positive perceptions of the economic benefits of tourism, its continued use for sustainable development is uncertain. Key challenges include 1) a lack of confidence in the economic certainty of tourism and its use for out-migration, 2) a maturing tourism market, and 3) challenges to the local control of natural resources vis-à-vis external hegemonic forces. These factors are testing a philosophy of sustainable development constructed upon conservation, community participation and social equity.

Winter tourism and the environment in conflict: the case of Cairngorm, Scotland.

The development of downhill skiing in mountain areas has, since the 1950s been rapid, encouraged by government policy based upon an economic and social rationale. The World Tourism Organisation estimates that there are 15 to 20 million people crossing international borders to ski, representing 3–4% of the annual total of international tourist arrivals. However, as with other forms of tourism development, downhill skiing can also cause a range of negative environmental impacts or consequences. In mountain areas, where the physical environment is not robust and is slow to regenerate because of the harsh climatic conditions, downhill skiing can pose a real ecological threat. The negative consequences of ski development on mountain environments has meant that there is increasing conflict between ski developers and conservation groups. This confrontation has led to direct action against ski facilities in Vail, Colorado and in the case of Cairngorm lengthy judicial planning disputes. Yet little is understood about the attitudes of the downhill skiers to the environment they are skiing in, and little thought has been given to how this information could be used in better management of ski areas or in development strategies, to reduce the negative effects of downhill skiing. Copyright

Evolving perspectives on tourism's interaction with nature during the last 40 years

The aim of this retrospective is to evaluate the changing paradigms of tourisms relationship with nature over the last four decades. It is presented as one interpretation of this relationship not a definitive fait accompli. The period is characterized by an evolution of the society-nature relationship in response to environmental challenges never previously experienced. This includes a reassessment of ‘nature’ as both a social construction and scientific reality and a subsequent re-evaluation of our relationship to it, reflected in new paradigms including sustainability and environmental ethics. The paradox of tourisms relationship with the environment has simultaneously played out over the period, exemplified in its contemporary interpretations as a key sustainable industry of the green economy and a significant contributor to GHG emissions and global warming. The conflicting interpretations of tourism suggest that the principles and ethics of environmental discourse will be critical for evaluating the tourism and nature relationship. This connection will continue to evolve and tourisms increasing popularity and global economic importance ensures that it will have consequences for nature whilst providing a window into societys environmental values and attitudes.

Human development: the role of tourism based NGOs in Nepal.

The aim of this paper is to analyze the relationship between tourism and non-government organisations (NGOs) through the relative contribution each potentially can make in attempting to tackle Nepals relatively poor human development profile. Subsequently the paper provides an overview of Nepals economic background, its level of human development, the growing emphasis placed upon community approaches, and the effects of tourism on the Nepalese economy and environment. The paper then discusses the potential for ‘non-government, tourism-funded community projects’ to improve human development. Particular reference will be made to the role of the ‘Annapurna Conservation Area Project’, which through the utilization of tourism revenue, has attempted to improve human development by the introduction of conservation management training and the development of human resource skills.

'Citizen of the World' or 'Management Puppet'? The Place of Tourism Studies in Higher Education

The significant role of tourism as an agent of change in global society makes its study a relevant one for higher education. However, how tourism manifests itself in higher education can vary from a management orientation to a multi-disciplinary social science studies based approach. But how tourism curricula are decided is not a decision of academic judgement. Neither tourism nor tourism education exists in isolation of a wider political economic system that is increasingly dominated by neo-liberalism and the market mechanism as a means of resource allocation. In many Anglo-Saxon countries including Britain the use of markets is also applied in higher education to decide how educational resources should be distributed. Coupled with a need for students to pay fees for study and take loans to support themselves through their university studies, there is increased pressure for vocational degrees). In tourism, this would typically manifest itself by management studies becoming the core of a tourism degree programme. This paper argues that there are dangers to this approach because it can produce a reductionist perspective of the tourism system and also reduce the analytical ability of students to understand the social world that surrounds them and that they shape. It concludes that tourism studies courses need to be based upon knowledge and theory rooted in the social sciences.

The Changing Paradigms of Tourism in International Development: Placing the Poor First—Trojan Horse or Real Hope?

The theme of this special edition brings together a compendium of exciting papers to add to the growing emergent body of literature on a relationship that has the potential not only to benefit the poor but to also emphasise the role of tourism in global policy. Six papers and a research note are presented in this volume, all of which lend varying perspectives and raise important questions about the multi-dimensional and complex relationship of tourism to poverty reduction. They also highlight the influence of geography and culture of place on the emergent models of tourism’s use for poverty reduction and the need for practice that is relevant to local considerations within a globalised theme. Each sector has a role to play in the fight against poverty and tourism is undoubtedly one that can make a valuable contribution. While the private sector’s role is to provide jobs for the poor and to develop creative business models that enable the poor to produce and sell their products, a government’s role, besides providing basic public services to the poor and protecting the poor from exploitation, is to facilitate job creation by nurturing development of small and medium enterprises (SMEs), developing capacity building programmes that enhance the employability of the poor, and improving labour markets by facilitating the inclusion of the poor within their strategic vision. Equally, civil societies should serve as catalysts, supervisory bodies and advocate institutions to ensure that business and government fulfil their roles. The impact on the poor of tourism in the context of global trade is central to the debate on Boluk’s paper on the theme of fair trade tourism in South Africa. Alongside highlighting the advantages for the poor of the use of tourism within a fair trade model, the difficulty of implementation of a model of good practice in a situation of a complex political and cultural history is highlighted. The history of apartheid and the dominance of the tourism industry by the “whites” necessitates the overcoming of substantial barriers to trust necessary to establish meaningful stakeholder partnerships to forward Pro-Poor Tourism (PPT). This case study acts as a reminder that tourism does not operate in a void of the wider political economy and culturally specific contexts. It also reminds us that the production of a transferable model of good practice will involve various degrees of adjustment to the specifics of localities. The relationship of tourism and foreign aid is explored in Cheer et al.’s case study Vanuatu that highlights the problem of tourism being accepted as a legitimate form of development by aid donors, as exemplified in the history of the World Bank’s varying attitude to tourism as a type of economic development. A continued association with tourism as a neo-colonial industry dominated by foreigners with the potential to offer only lowskilled and poorly paid employment for local people, combined with an often low Tourism, Hospitality & Development Vol. 8, No. 3, 233–235, August 2011