Andrew J. Noss

The use of camera traps for estimating jaguar Panthera onca abundance and density using capture/recapture analysis

Across their range jaguars Panthera onca are important conservation icons for several reasons: their important role in ecosystems as top carnivores, their cultural and economic value, and their potential conflicts with livestock. However, jaguars have historically been difficult to monitor. This paper outlines the first applica- tion of a systematic camera trapping methodology for abundance estimation of jaguars. The methodology was initially developed to estimate tiger abundance in India. We used a grid of camera traps deployed for 2 months, identified individual animals from their pelage patterns, and estimated population abundance using capture-recapture statistical models. We applied this methodology in a total of five study sites in the Mayan

ESTIMATING PUMA DENSITIES FROM CAMERA TRAPPING ACROSS THREE STUDY SITES: BOLIVIA, ARGENTINA, AND BELIZE

Abstract Estimates of abundance are extremely valuable for species conservation, yet determining abundance for elusive, wide-ranging, carnivores is difficult. We estimated density of pumas using remote cameras across study sites in Bolivia, Argentina, and Belize. We used obvious and subtle markings to identify individual pumas in photographs and conducted double-blind identifications to examine the degree of agreement among investigators. Average agreement on identification between pairs of investigators was nearly 80.0% and 3-way agreement was 72.9%. Identification of pumas as different individuals was uncommon (7.8% pairwise, 0.69% 3-way disagreement) with the remainder described as unidentifiable. Densities of pumas varied consistently from site to site regardless of investigator. Bolivian pumas moved the shortest distances between camera stations and Argentinean pumas the longest, but distances among cameras and area covered by surveys varied among sites. We applied a correction factor to the Bolivian data to account for the small area surveyed and found that, averaged across investigator, Bolivia had significantly more pumas per 100 km2 (mean ± SD; 6.80 ± 1.5) than Belize (3.42 ± 1.3) or Argentina (0.67 ± 0.2). Numbers of pumas in Argentina match those of low-density North American sites, and those for Belize are consistent with the Pantanal and high-density North American sites. Densities of pumas can be reliably estimated with remote cameras for these sites, and our work presents the 1st density estimates for Central America and for forested environments in South America.

One thousand jaguars (Panthera onca) in Bolivia's Chaco? Camera trapping in the Kaa‐Iya National Park

This paper reports on efforts to trap jaguars Panthera onca on camera in the dry forests of the Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park in Bolivia. Ad hoc camera trapping provided certain information on jaguar presence and habits, but was limited in application. Activity patterns showed that jaguars are active all day, particularly at one of three sites, with peaks in the morning and evening the more common pattern. Minimum observed home range was variable, with males (up to 65 km 2 ) occupying more area than females (up to 29 km 2 ). The authors adapted systematic methodologies first developed to survey tigers in India, based on individually distinctive pelage patterns in tigers and jaguars. Abundance is estimated using capture–recapture statistical analysis, and a sample area defined based on the maximum distance that individual jaguars move during the sample period. The methodology has proved successful for jaguars in dry Chaco forest, population densities of 1/30–45 km 2 and 1/20 km 2 are estimated in the two most extensive landscape systems of Kaa-Iya. The entire 34 400 km 2 protected area is estimated to sustain a population of over 1000 adult and juvenile jaguars, the largest single population of jaguar reported anywhere, and a viable population for long-term jaguar conservation.

Ocelot ( Felis pardalis ) population densities, activity, and ranging behaviour in the dry forests of eastern Bolivia: data from camera trapping

In comparison with the Neotropical big cats, jaguar ( Panthera onca L.) and puma ( Felis concolor L.), medium and small felids are poorly studied. Furthermore, studying wild felids in forest habitats is extremely difficult using direct methods given that most species are principally nocturnal and secretive (Gittleman 1996). Indirect methods are therefore particularly important, e.g. radio-telemetry (Emmons 1987, 1988; Konecny 1989, Ludlow & Sunquist 1987) or camera trapping (Maffei et al . 2002, Trolle & Kery 2003). Using systematic camera trap surveys, we compare the population density of ocelots ( Felis pardalis L.) across five Bolivian dry-forest sites with different habitat types and/or annual rainfall regimes (Table 1). We hypothesize that ocelot densities will decline as rainfall declines. In addition, we estimate the population of ocelots in the 34 400-km 2 Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park. Finally, we describe and evaluate additional ecological information provided by camera trapping: activity patterns relative to seasonality and moon phase, sex ratios, ranging patterns and relative abundance compared with sympatric felids.

Demography, hunting ecology, and pathogen exposure of domestic dogs in the Isoso of Bolivia

Abstract:  Disease is increasingly recognized as a threat to the conservation of wildlife, and in many cases the source of disease outbreaks in wild carnivores is the domestic dog. For disease to spill over from a domestic to a wild population, three conditions must be satisfied: susceptibility of the wild species, presence of the disease agent in the domestic population, and contact between the two populations of interest. We investigated the potential for disease spillover from the domestic dog population to the wild carnivore population in the Isoso of Bolivia, an area of tropical dry forest contiguous with a national park. Using questionnaires and discussions with residents, we gathered data on the demography of dogs in the Isoso, including adult and neonatal mortality, litter size, and hunting frequency. We analyzed a large data set containing self‐recorded information on hunting in various communities of the Isoso to determine the extent of dog participation in hunting and the duration of hunting trips. Finally, we took blood samples from dogs in the Isoso for a serosurvey of common canine pathogens. More than 95% of dogs had positive titers to canine distemper virus and canine parvovirus. There was also a high seroprevalence in dogs for other pathogens, a high population turnover of dogs (which may allow diseases to be maintained endemically), and frequent opportunities for contact between domestic and wild carnivores. Based on our results and the susceptibility of wild species previously reported in the literature, domestic dogs represent a disease risk for wildlife in the Bolivian Isoso.

Geoffroy's cats at the northern limit of their range: activity patterns and density estimates from camera trapping in Bolivian dry forests

We used camera traps to survey Geoffroys cats, Oncifelis geoffroyi, at six dry forest sites in Bolivia. Cumulative activity patterns across all sites are principally nocturnal though the species is active by day in both summer and winter. At two sites the number of captures and recaptures was sufficient to estimate abundance using the software Capture, and in turn a population density of 9–40 per 100 km2 for the two sites. Geoffroys cats are present in all dry forest types surveyed: Chaco savannas, Chaco dry forest, Chaco transitional forest, Chaco‐Chiquitano transitional forest, Chaco‐Cerrado transitional forest and Chiquitano dry forest. They are most abundant at the driest site, the only one with grassland formations and where ocelots are absent. Camera trapping records tend to be more numerous in the dry season, suggesting seasonal changes in behavior and habitat use. Resumen Empleamos trampas‐cámara para muestrear Oncifelis geoffroyi en seis sitios ubicados en bosques secos de Bolivia. El patrón de actividad en todos los sitios es principalmente nocturno, pero la especie puede estar activa de día en verano como en invierno. En dos sitios tuvimos suficiente capturas y recapturas para estimar abundancia usando el programa Capture, y luego una densidad poblacional de 9–40/100 km2 para los dos sitios. Oncifelis geoffroyi está presente en todas los tipos de bosques secos muestreados: sabanas chaqueñas, bosque seco chaqueño, bosque transicional chaqueño, bosque transicional Chaco‐Chiquitano, bosque transitional Chaco‐Cerrado, y bosque seco Chiquitano. Es más abundante en el sitio con menor precipitación, el único sitio con formaciones de pampas y donde es ausente Leopardus pardalis. Se tiene más registros con trampas‐cámara en la época seca, sugiriendo cambios estacionales en comportamiento y uso de hábitat.

HEALTH EVALUATION OF FREE-RANGING AND CAPTIVE BLUE‐FRONTED AMAZON PARROTS (AMAZONA AESTIVA) IN THE GRAN CHACO, BOLIVIA

Abstract Bolivia has a total of 47 species of Psittacidae, seven of which have been identified in our study site, the semiarid Gran Chaco of the Isoso. One species, the blue-fronted parrot (Amazona aestiva), is frequently captured by local Isoseño Guaraní Indians for exploitation on the national and international market. These birds are often temporarily housed in small villages under unhygienic conditions with poultry and other domestic species. On occasion, these parrots escape back to the wild. Additionally, many of these birds are kept as pets or are used to lure wild parrots within slingshot range for subsequent capture. In this study, we evaluated the health status, including the level of exposure to selected infectious agents, in the wild-caught captive birds and free-ranging birds. Physical examinations were performed, and blood was collected, from 54 live birds (20 captive and 34 free-ranging). Feces were collected from 15 birds (seven captive and eight free-ranging). Necropsies were also performed on four recently dead wild-caught birds. On serologic testing, no birds were found to have antibodies to avian influenza virus, Chlamydophila psittaci, infectious bronchitis virus, infectious bursal disease virus, infectious laryngotracheitis virus, Mareks disease virus, paramyxovirus-1, paramyxovirus-2, paramyxovirus-3, polyomavirus, eastern equine encephalitis virus, western equine encephalitis virus, or Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Positive antibody titers were found for psittacine herpesvirus (8/44, 18.2%), Aspergillus spp. (3/51, 5.9%), and Salmonella pullorum (33/49, 67.3%). All three of the birds that tested antibody positive for Aspergillus spp. were captive, whereas six of the eight and 15 of the 33 birds that tested positive for psittacine herpesvirus and S. pullorum, respectively, were wild.

The impacts of BaAka net hunting on rainforest wildlife

Conservation programs often implicitly assume that subsistence hunting by indigenous peoples using traditional hunting methods is ecologically sustainable. Indeed communal net hunts are less detrimental to wildlife than are the other principal hunting methods in central African forests, namely cable snares and firearms. However, research in the Dzanga-Sangha Special Reserve of the Central African Republic suggests that BaAka net hunters may overexploit primary game species including the blue duiker Cephalophus monticola and the bay duiker Cephalopus dorsalis. The method itself spares protected and endangered species, but overexploitation of game species results from increases in hunting intensity as BaAka populations grow and hunting ranges decline. Given the dynamic socio-economic conditions, subsistence hunting over the long-term is not ecologically sustainable. Wildlife management programs therefore must address not only hunting method and hunting area, but also must develop viable subsistence and economic alternatives for local residents.

Abundance/Density Case Study: Jaguars in the Americas

Since camera traps were first used to estimate the density of tiger Panthera tigris populations in India (Karanth 1995; see also Karanth et al. this volume), this methodology has been widely used to study a variety of species: leopards Panthera pardus (Henschel and Ray 2003; Karanth et al. this volume; Kostyria et al. 2003), snow leopards Panthera uncia (Jackson et al. 2006), pumas Puma concolor (Kelly et al. 2008), ocelots Leopardus pardalis (Di Bitetti et al. 2006, 2008; Dillon and Kelly 2007, 2008; Maffei et al. 2005; Trolle and Kery 2003, 2005), and Geoffroy’s cats Oncifelis geoffroyi (Cuellar et al. 2006; Pereira et al. 2006). However, jaguars Panthera onca have probably received the most attention with respect to using camera traps to estimate the abundance and density of populations that cover the species’ entire Neotropical range (Cullen et al. 2005; Kelly 2003; Maffei et al. 2004b; Miller and Miller 2005; Silver et al. 2004; Soisalo and Cavalcanti 2006). To date, at least 83 different camera trapping efforts have been carried out to survey jaguars, from southern Arizona in the north to northern Argentina in the south. In this chapter, we describe the details of this methodology – summarizing information on survey design and methodologies, results, data manipulation and analyses – and discuss how future surveys can be refined to allow for more robust inferences.

Temporal separation between jaguar and puma in the dry forests of southern Bolivia

Despite the potential importance of temporal separation for the coexistence of competing species, no study has found significant segregation at the circadian level between jaguar (Panthera onca )a nd puma (Puma concolor )i n sympatry. Using data from camera trap surveys (wet and dry seasons), we have evaluated the activity patterns of both species and their potential prey at four areas in the dry forest of the Bolivian Chaco. We tested if temporal separation existed between these two species, and if their activity was related to that of a particular prey. At most sites, activity patterns of jaguar and puma did not vary significantly between seasons, except for puma at one site. There were no differences between sexes for any cat species at any site. At three sites we found statistically significant differences in the activity patterns of jaguar and puma, as they showed a clear temporal segregation. None of them followed the activity patterns of any particular prey species across sites. The latter suggests that segregation is influenced by avoidance behaviour between the two felid species. Therefore, temporal separation may be an important behavioural factor promoting the coexistence of jaguar and puma in some areas of this dry forest.