Andrew T. Reid

Cellular mechanisms regulating sperm–zona pellucida interaction

For mammalian spermatozoa to exhibit the ability to bind the zona pellucida (ZP) they must undergo three distinct phases of maturation, namely, spermatogenesis (testis), epididymal maturation (epididymis) and capacitation (female reproductive tract). An impressive array of spermatozoa surface remodeling events accompany these phases of maturation and appear critical for recognition and adhesion of the outer vestments of the oocyte, a structure known as the ZP. It is becoming increasingly apparent that species-specific zona adhesion is not mediated by a single receptor. Instead, compelling evidence now points toward models implicating a multiplicity of receptor-ligand interactions. This notion is in keeping with emerging research that has shown that there is a dynamic aggregation of proteins believed to be important in sperm-ZP recognition to the regions of sperm that mediate this binding event. Such remodeling may in turn facilitate the assembly of a multimeric zona recognition complex (MZRC). Though formation of MZRCs raises questions regarding the nature of the block to polyspermy, formation and assembly of such a structure would no doubt explain the strenuous maturation process that sperm endure on their sojourn to functional maturity.

Dynamin Regulates Specific Membrane Fusion Events Necessary for Acrosomal Exocytosis in Mouse Spermatozoa

Background: Mammalian fertilization is preceded by sperm acrosomal exocytosis. Results: The GTPases, dynamin 1 and 2, were identified within the periacrosomal region of the mouse sperm head and shown to participate in a progesterone-induced acrosome reaction. Conclusion: Dynamin forms part of the molecular machinery that underpins acrosomal exocytosis. Significance: These data provide an important mechanistic insight into the molecular basis of the sperm acrosome reaction. Mammalian spermatozoa must complete an acrosome reaction prior to fertilizing an oocyte. The acrosome reaction is a unique exocytotic event involving a series of prolonged membrane fusions that ultimately result in the production of membrane vesicles and release of the acrosomal contents. This event requires the concerted action of a large number of fusion-competent signaling and scaffolding proteins. Here we show that two different members of the dynamin GTPase family localize to the developing acrosome of maturing mouse germ cells. Both dynamin 1 and 2 also remain within the periacrosomal region of mature mouse spermatozoa and are thus well positioned to regulate the acrosome reaction. Two pharmacological inhibitors of dynamin, dynasore and Dyngo-4a, blocked the in vitro induction of acrosomal exocytosis by progesterone, but not by the calcium ionophore A23187, and elicited a concomitant reduction of in vitro fertilization. In vivo treatment with these inhibitors also resulted in spermatozoa displaying reduced acrosome reaction potential. Dynamin 1 and 2 phosphorylation increased on progesterone treatment, and this was also selectively blocked by dynasore. On the basis of our collective data, we propose that dynamin could regulate specific membrane fusion events necessary for acrosomal exocytosis in mouse spermatozoa.

Disruption of β-catenin/CBP signaling inhibits human airway epithelial-mesenchymal transition and repair.

The epithelium of asthmatics is characterized by reduced expression of E-cadherin and increased expression of the basal cell markers ck-5 and p63 that is indicative of a relatively undifferentiated repairing epithelium. This phenotype correlates with increased proliferation, compromised wound healing and an enhanced capacity to undergo epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). The transcription factor β-catenin plays a vital role in epithelial cell differentiation and regeneration, depending on the co-factor recruited. Transcriptional programs driven by the β-catenin/CBP axis are critical for maintaining an undifferentiated and proliferative state, whereas the β-catenin/p300 axis is associated with cell differentiation. We hypothesized that disrupting the β-catenin/CBP signaling axis would promote epithelial differentiation and inhibit EMT. We treated monolayer cultures of human airway epithelial cells with TGFβ1 in the presence or absence of the selective small molecule ICG-001 to inhibit β-catenin/CBP signaling. We used western blots to assess expression of an EMT signature, CBP, p300, β-catenin, fibronectin and ITGβ1 and scratch wound assays to assess epithelial cell migration. Snai-1 and -2 expressions were determined using q-PCR. Exposure to TGFβ1 induced EMT, characterized by reduced E-cadherin expression with increased expression of α-smooth muscle actin and EDA-fibronectin. Either co-treatment or therapeutic administration of ICG-001 completely inhibited TGFβ1-induced EMT. ICG-001 also reduced the expression of ck-5 and -19 independent of TGFβ1. Exposure to ICG-001 significantly inhibited epithelial cell proliferation and migration, coincident with a down regulation of ITGβ1 and fibronectin expression. These data support our hypothesis that modulating the β-catenin/CBP signaling axis plays a key role in epithelial plasticity and function.

Glycogen synthase kinase 3 regulates acrosomal exocytosis in mouse spermatozoa via dynamin phosphorylation

The dynamin family of GTPases has been implicated as novel regulators of the acrosome reaction, a unique exocytotic event that is essential for fertilization. Dynamin activity during the acrosome reaction is accompanied by phosphorylation of key serine residues. We now tested the hypothesis that glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) is the protein kinase responsible for dynamin phosphorylation at these phosphosites in mouse spermatozoa. Pharmacologic inhibition of GSK3 in mature mouse spermatozoa (CHIR99021: IC50 = 6.7 nM) led to a significant reduction in dynamin phosphorylation (10.3% vs. 27.3%; P < 0.001), acrosomal exocytosis (9.7% vs. 25.7%; P < 0.01), and in vitro fertilization (53% vs. 100%; P < 0.01). GSK3 was shown to be present in developing germ cells where it colocalized with dynamin in the peri‐acrosomal domain. However, additional GSK3 was acquired by maturing mouse spermatozoa within the male reproductive tract, via a novel mechanism involving direct interaction of sperm heads with extracellular structures known as epididymal dense bodies. These data reveal a novel mode for the cellular acquisition of a protein kinase and identify a key role for GSK3 in the regulation of sperm maturation and acrosomal exocytosis.—Reid, A.T., Anderson, A.L., Roman, S. D., McLaughlin, E. A., McCluskey, A., Robinson, P. J., Aitken, R. J., Nixon, B. Glycogen synthase kinase 3 regulates acrosomal exocytosis in mouse spermatozoa via dynamin phosphorylation. FASEB J. 29, 2872‐2882 (2015). www.fasebj.org

Developmental expression of the dynamin family of mechanoenzymes in the mouse epididymis

Abstract The mammalian epididymis is an exceptionally long ductal system tasked with the provision of one of the most complex intraluminal fluids found in any exocrine gland. This specialized milieu is continuously modified by the combined secretory and absorptive of the surrounding epithelium and thus finely tuned for its essential roles in promoting sperm maturation and storage. While considerable effort has been focused on defining the composition of the epididymal fluid, relatively less is known about the intracellular trafficking machinery that regulates this luminal environment. Here, we characterize the ontogeny of expression of a master regulator of this machinery, the dynamin family of mechanoenzymes. Our data show that canonical dynamin isoforms were abundantly expressed in the juvenile mouse epididymis. However, in peripubertal and adult animals dynamin takes on a heterogeneous pattern of expression such that the different isoforms displayed both cell- and segment-specific localization. Thus, dynamin 1 and 3 were predominately localized in the distal epididymal segments (corpus and cauda), where they were found within clear and principal cells, respectively. In contrast, dynamin 2 was expressed throughout the epididymis, but localized to the Golgi apparatus of the principal cells in the proximal (caput) segment and the luminal border of these cells in more distal segments. These dynamin isoforms are therefore ideally positioned to play complementary, nonredundant roles in the regulation of the epididymal milieu. In support of this hypothesis, selective inhibition of dynamin altered the profile of proteins secreted from an immortalized caput epididymal cell line. Summary Sentence The dynamin family of mechanoenzymes is differentially expressed in the mouse epididymal epithelium and selectively regulates protein secretion.

Persistent induction of goblet cell differentiation in the airways: Therapeutic approaches

ABSTRACT Dysregulated induction of goblet cell differentiation results in excessive production and retention of mucus and is a common feature of several chronic airways diseases. To date, therapeutic strategies to reduce mucus accumulation have focused primarily on altering the properties of the mucus itself, or have aimed to limit the production of mucus‐stimulating cytokines. Here we review the current knowledge of key molecular pathways that are dysregulated during persistent goblet cell differentiation and highlights both pre‐existing and novel therapeutic strategies to combat this pathology.

Mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to the senescent phenotype of IPF lung fibroblasts

Increasing evidence highlights that senescence plays an important role in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). This study delineates the specific contribution of mitochondria and the superoxide they form to the senescent phenotype of lung fibroblasts from IPF patients (IPF‐LFs). Primary cultures of IPF‐LFs exhibited an intensified DNA damage response (DDR) and were more senescent than age‐matched fibroblasts from control donors (Ctrl‐LFs). Furthermore, IPF‐LFs exhibited mitochondrial dysfunction, exemplified by increases in mitochondrial superoxide, DNA, stress and activation of mTORC1. The DNA damaging agent etoposide elicited a DDR and augmented senescence in Ctrl‐LFs, which were accompanied by disturbances in mitochondrial homoeostasis including heightened superoxide production. However, etoposide had no effect on IPF‐LFs. Mitochondrial perturbation by rotenone involving sharp increases in superoxide production also evoked a DDR and senescence in Ctrl‐LFs, but not IPF‐LFs. Inhibition of mTORC1, antioxidant treatment and a mitochondrial targeting antioxidant decelerated IPF‐LF senescence and/or attenuated pharmacologically induced Ctrl‐LF senescence. In conclusion, increased superoxide production by dysfunctional mitochondria reinforces lung fibroblast senescence via prolongation of the DDR. As part of an auto‐amplifying loop, mTORC1 is activated, altering mitochondrial homoeostasis and increasing superoxide production. Deeper understanding the mechanisms by which mitochondria contribute to fibroblast senescence in IPF has potentially important therapeutic implications.