Andy Galbraith

A Novel Field Test to Determine Critical Speed

The aim of this study was to assess the reliability of a novel field test of critical running speed (CS). Ten trained male distance runners completed a familiarisation trial plus three separate experimental trials on a standard 400 m athletics track. Each trial consisted of three distances (1200, 2400 and 3600 metres) that were selected to produce finishing times in the region of 3, 7 and 12 minutes respectively. Participants were instructed to cover the set distance in the fastest time possible. Participants rested for 30 minutes between efforts. Data were modelled using the linear distance-time model, described by the equation: d = (CS x t) + ARC, where: d = distance run (m), t = running time (s), and ARC = anaerobic running capacity (m). Results demonstrated a coefficient of variation (CV) of 2.0% (95% confidence limit (95% CL): 1.4–3.8%) for trials 2–1 and 1.3% (95% CL: 0.9–2.4%) for trials 3–2. There was no significant difference in CS (m·s -1 ) across trials (P<0.05). The limits of agreement were ±0.27m·s -1 of the measure for trials 2–1 and ±0.18 m·s -1 for trials 3–2. ARC proved to be less reliable with a group CV of 18.4% (95% CL: 13.5– 39.9%) for trials 2–1 and 9.8% (95% CL: 7.0–19.6%) for trials 3–2. Although the assessment of ARC is less reliable, CV data are similar to those reported previously during laboratory-based testing.

The validity and reliability of a commercially available GPS device duringrunning and cycling

Although injury rates between elite female and male players are comparable, female players are more likely to sustain an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) (Walden et al., 2011, Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy, 19, 11–19). A common mechanism of ACL injury is non-contact trauma sustained when landing from a jump. The Tuck Jump Assessment (TJA) uses 10 criteria to identify technique flaws when jumping and landing (Myer et al., et al., 2008, Athletic Therapy Today, 13, 39–44) although interrater reliability has been challenged (Dudley et al., 2016, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 30, 1510–1516). The aim of this study was to identify commonly occurring technique JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES s37 flaws during the TJA and to determine inter-rater agreement for each criterion and the composite score. Following institutional ethical approval, 60 female soccer players were recruited from one international squad (mean (SD): age = 20.27 ± 3.44 years; height = 168.02 ± 5.26 cm; mass = 62.54 ± 6.33 kg). Video recordings (sagittal and coronal plane) of each player undertaking the TJA on an artificial 4G playing surface were taken. Four raters (2 physiotherapists and 2 strength and conditioning coaches) independently assessed each TJA criterion post hoc (flaw present = 1 point, flaw absent = 0 points) and the composite score calculated for each player. There were 665 technique flaws. Criterion 2 “Thighs do not reach parallel” was most common (N = 147/665), followed by criterion 1 “Knee valgus on landing” (N = 80/665). Criterion 9 “Pause between jumps” was least common (N = 23/665).The most common fault category was “Knee and thigh motion” (N = 234/720, 32.5% composite of 3 criteria weighted for maximum possible faults). There were clinically acceptable levels of agreement between raters for “Lower extremity valgus at landing”, k = .83 (95% CI, .72–.93); “Thighs do not reach parallel (peak of jump)”, k = .84 (95% CI, .74–.94); “Thighs not equal side to side”, k = .86 (95% CI, .75–.96). The level of agreement for the composite score of all 10 criteria ranged from kw = .62 (95% CI, .48–.76) to kw = .80 (95% CI, .70–.90) suggesting a “fair-to-very good” level of inter-rater agreement. The “knee and thigh” motion category of the TJA may provide the most useful information for knee mechanics and potential risk factors for knee injury. We recommend its use for screening elite female soccer players.The advancements in micro-technology have enabled the quantification of external load in many team sports using GPS derived data. However, it has been proposed that an accelerometer derived variable, such as player load (PL), may provide a superior measurement system (Boyd, Ball, & Aughey, 2011, International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 6, 311-321). The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between PL and distance covered in hockey competition. With institutional ethics approval, 25 elite male hockey players wore tracking devices in 8 international matches. Players were classified into 3 positional groups (defenders, midfielders and forwards). Absolute and relative values were determined for PL and distance. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r) was calculated to determine the relationship between PL and distance. The Fisher Z test was used to compare the relationships between groups. There were very large correlations between absolute distance and load for all positions (r = 0.902-0.956, P < 0.01) and overall (r = 0.910, P < 0.01). The absolute distance to load relationship was not different between positions. There were very large correlations between relative distance and load for all positions (r = 0.702-0.927, P < 0.01) and overall (r = 0.872, P < 0.01). The relative distance to load relationship was weaker in defenders compared with midfielders (Z = 3.48, P = 0.0005) and forwards (Z = 2.14, P = 0.0324). The strong relationships between these variables suggest that PL is simply a proxy for distance covered and it appears to be heavily influenced by the vertical accelerations that occur during foot strike at any running speed. Therefore, additional research is required to examine how PL can be modified to fully represent all hockey specific activities. The numerical spread of data may have influenced the positional relationships for the relative values.Concussion occurs following a forceful impact to the brain inducing sudden trauma, and may lead to chronic physical, cognitive and/or emotional impairments (Kerr et al, 2013, SAGE, 7, 138-153). As physical activity patterns increase across recreational teams, high schools, colleges, and at professional level, so do the amount of sports - related concussions (SRC) (Fraas et al, 2014, Irish Journal of Medical Science, 184, 425-430). In amateur university sports where participation is high (Kasamatsu et al, 2016, Athletic Training and Sports Health Care, 8, 112-120), there is a lack of data on the awareness level of SRC among athletes and coaches. Therefore, this investigation sought to evaluate concussion knowledge among university level athletes and coaches. Following institutional ethical approval, forty healthy male rugby union (n = 20) and Gaelic football (n = 20) players (age: 22 ± 2 years and 21 ± 1 years, respectively; playing experience: 7.5 ± 1 and 5.0 ± 1 years, respectively) (mean ± s) and eight male coaches from Gaelic football, rugby union, soccer, hockey, netball, and basketball (age: 23 ± 2 years; coaching experience: 6.0 ± 1 years) (mean ± s) completed two validated surveys (Cusimano et al, 2009, Canadian journal of neurological sciences, 36, 315-320; McKinlay, Bishop and McLellan, Brain injury, 25, 761-766) examining knowledge of concussive signs, symptoms, management and return to play guidelines. Respondents had significant misconceptions surrounding SRC; 35% of athletes believed that a player must lose consciousness to suffer from a concussion and 20% believed that it was safe to play with a concussion. About 40% of rugby union athletes believed players could return to play two days after suffering a concussion. Despite having greater concussion knowledge in comparison to the athletes, 25% of coaches did not know how to identify a concussion and 25% were unaware of the return to play guidelines. Rugby union and Gaelic football athletes exhibited a similar sub-optimal level of concussion knowledge. In summary, a marked number of athletes and coaches hold misconceptions surrounding concussive signs and symptoms. Additionally, a number were unaware of the management procedure and return to play guidelines post-concussion. There is a need for educational concussion strategies to be implemented in university sport, to maximise the health and safety of those participating. However, the effectiveness of such an educational programme requires further investigation prior to implementation (Fraas & Burchiel, 2016, European Journal of Sports Sciences, 1-7).Shooting is one of the key technical skills required by wheelchair basketball players (Zwakhoven, Evaggelinou, Daly, & Vanlandewijck, 2003, European Bulletin of Adapted Physical Activity, 2 (3)). Previous studies have focused on examining the technique of free-throw shooting (Goosey-Tolfrey, Butterworth, & Morriss, 2002, Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 19, 238–250); however, free-throws only equate to approximately 15–22% of the total number of shots taken during a game (Gomez, Perez, Molik, Szyman, & Sampaio, 2014, Journal of Sports Sciences, 32 (11), 1066–1075). To date, no attempts have been made to explore the determinants of two-point and three-point shooting. This study explores the key determinants of two-point and threepoint shooting and develops a valid prediction model. Following ethical approval, footage of all of the twopoint and three-point shots taken when the top five teams played each other (nine games; 1144 shots) at the 2015 Men’s European Wheelchair Basketball Championships was analysed in SportsCode (version 10, SportsTec Ltd). A valid and reliable shooting specific performance analysis template was developed by three elite wheelchair basketball coaches and the lead researcher (Inter-operator reliability ± 1: 0.00%; Intraoperator reliability ± 1: 0.00%). The template contained 61 action variables within 20 categories: Point, Quarter, Match Status, Classification, Shot Hand, Shot Handed, Shot Type, Shot Clock, Pre-Shot, Shot Movement, Shot Positioning, Zone, Pressure, Number of Defenders, Defender Marking-Shooting Hand, Defender Marking-Non-Shooting Hand, Defender Marking-Space and Defenders Positioning-Defender In Front, Defenders Positioning-Defender Behind and Defenders Positioning-Defender on Side. Chi-squared test highlighted seven categories were significant (P < 0.001) when shot outcome was compared (successful versus unsuccessful). The Shot Positioning category was the most significant category and produced a P-value of 2.2e-16. The forward selection method was used and a 30% sample of the data set selected to create a shooting specific generalised linear regression model that involved 10 categories. The model was tested against the entire data set and an area under the curve value of 0.850 was achieved. The model demonstrated that when an athlete was able to “catch and shoot” in a “square to basket” position whilst “stationary” and taking a “set shot” from the “two-point centre long” zone whilst a defender is placing “no pressure” on the shooter the individual achieved a 96.87% success rate. The findings provide objective evidence of the key determinants of shooting success. Coaches are able to utilise this information to adjust training sessions and game strategies to meet the needs of the performer.Intensive strength-training (ST) can result in exercise induced muscle damage (EIMD), which commonly leads to reductions in acute muscle function. Post-exercise ingestion of carbohydrate and protein mixtures attempt to attenuate the effects of EIMD. This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of whey-protein-hydrolysate and milk-based formulated drinks on recovery of muscle function following ST. Thirty resistance-trained males (age: 25.2 ± 5.5 years, mass: 79.4 ± 8.4 kg, stature: 1.77 ± 0.45 m) provided written informed consent to participate. The study was approved by the local ethics committee inline with Helsinki Declarations. Participants were randomly equally assigned to either; whey-hydrolysate and dextrose drink (WH), milk-based drink (MB), flavoured dextrose (PLACEBO) and performed baseline assessments of perceived muscle-soreness (SORENESS), static-squat jump (SSJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), seated medicine-ball throw (MBT) and isokinetic assessments of the knee-extensors and flexors. Subsequently, participants performed a ST session consisting of various multi-joint barbell exercises. Participants then consumed either WH, MB or PLACEBO 10 min following ST, subsequently repeating all assessments 24 h and 48 h post-ST. In relation to within-group changes, all groups experienced substantial increases in SORENESS at 24 h and 48 h (P < 0.001). However, for dynamic power measures (SSJ, CMJ and MBT), PLACEBO experienced a decrease for only CMJ at 48 h (−1.8 cm), whereas WH and MB experienced significant decreases across SSJ (WH; −3 cm at 24 h, MB; −2.6 cm at 24 h, −2.0 cm at 48 h), CMJ (WH; −2.4 cm at 24 h, MB; −3.7 cm at 24 h, −3.3 cm at 48 h) and MBT (WH; −0.25 m at 48 h, MB; −0.33 cm at 24 h, −0.38 m at 48 h) (P < 0.05). All groups experienced significant decreases in isokinetic-extension torque at both 24 h and 48 h; however, flexion torque was decreased for PLACEBO only at these time points (24 h: −10 N · m, 48 h: −13 N · m) (P < 0.05). Isokinetic-extension power and work were significantly decreased at 24 h and 48 h for both WH [Power (24 h: −18 W, 48 h: −13 W) Work (24 h: −30 J, 48 h: −22 J)] and PLACEBO [Power (24 h: −15 W, 48 h: −14 W) Work (24 h: −25 J, 48 h: −28 J)] (P < 0.05); however, no decreases occurred for MB. Flexion power was significantly decreased for only PLACEBO at 24 h and 48 h (24 h: −7 W, 48 h: −6 W) (P < 0.05). Decreases in flexion work occurred across all conditions at 48 h, but only for PLACEBO at 24 h (WH, 48 h: −6 J) (MB, 48 h: −15 J) (PLACEBO, 24 h: −11 J, 48 h: 13 J) (P < 0.05). Consumption of WH or MB had no effect on recovery of dynamic power-producing ability or soreness compared to PLACEBO. However, WH and MB seemingly had positive effects on recovery of isokinetic muscle-function.Common mental disorder (CMD) have a high prevalence in retired rugby players (Gouttebarge, Kerkhoffs and Lambert, 2015, European College of Sports Science, doi.org/10.1080/17461391:2015.1086819). The physical, psychosocial and organisational stressors Rugby Football League (RFL) players experience may all contribute to inducing symptoms of CMD. The aim of this study was to assess RFL players’ perceived level of welfare support and to explore the experiences of Player Welfare Officers (PWO) attached to RFL’s Super League. This two year, mixed-methods project, commissioned by the RFL Player Welfare Director was undertaken with institutional ethics approval. The quantitative phase utilised an anonymised internet based survey to assess players’ perceptions of welfare support and aspects of mental health. Independent t-test results from the first survey (n=75) indicate a significantly higher risk of depression with higher stress levels (t(73) = 5.88 p<0.001) and with higher athletic identity (t(73) = 2.00 p<0.4). Players at low risk of depression reported more positive attitudes towards welfare policy (t(74) = 2.26 p<0.2). Better mental health was found when the club had a PWO, if they knew who the PWO was and if they knew how to access counselling services (second year survey results to follow, n=196). The qualitative phase utilised semi-structured interviews and were analysed using Template Analysis (Brooks, McCluskey, Turley and King, 2015, Qualitative Research in Psychology, 12(2), 202-22). In the first year 11 PWOs were interviewed, 12 in the second year. PWOs perceived the services they provided to be a potentially valuable asset for players. The uptake depended on the level of support from the club. The attitude of the coaching staff determined whether players were given time to access the PWO and whether or not this was seen as a valuable use of their time: “the PWO is only as important as the club want it to be...you need the backing of the coach in certain situations and you need time to build that relationship”. The PWOs have seen a cultural shift over the last year towards their role, and the services they signpost on to, being seen as more acceptable. The results suggest that the PWO’s role is integral to supporting RFL players’ mental health. This requires a full-time, not part-time role, and central funding from the RFL. This change would be advantageous in both increasing the time PWOs have available to support players, and the recognition of the value of the service they provide.

The effect of the rotor crank system on time-trial cycling performance

The Rotor (ROT) is a cycle crank configuration that allows the pedals to move independently in an attempt to eliminate the “dead spots”, where torque output is minimal. Delta efficiency has been found to be significantly improved during an incremental test when using ROT in a group of untrained cyclists (Santalla et al., 2002: Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34, 1854-1858). However, no study has investigated whether ROT affects cycling performance directly. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of ROT on time-trial cycling performance. Following institutional ethics approval, 12 competitive male cyclists (Age mean 34.6, s = 7.1 years, Mass mean 75.9, s = 7.8 kg, max mean 4.5, s = 0.3 L•min-1, Wmax mean 363, s = 37.7 W) provided written informed consent to participate. All subjects completed two 40.23-km time-trials on a Kingcycle ergometer in each of two conditions, i) using conventional bicycle cranks (CON) and ii) using the Rotor system (ROT). Cyclists trained for 6-weeks prior to the experimental trials as either habitual ROT users or habitual CON users. Power output, speed, heart rate, , RER and gross efficiency were measured for the duration of each time-trial. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA (pedalling system used during the test [CON, ROT] x habitual pedalling system [CON, ROT]) was performed to determine if there was a significant condition effect on the following variables: power output, speed, heart rate, , RER and gross efficiency. Statistical significance was set at P 0.05). Indeed, no effect due to the pedalling system used during tests was found for any of the measured variables (P > 0.05). Furthermore, there was no interaction effect between the two factors for any of the measured variables (P > 0.05). However, there were marked differences between conditions for some individuals. For example, power output was ~11% higher during the CON trial vs. the ROT trial for one subject but ~12% lower in another. These results suggest that the Rotor crank system does not impact on time-trial cycling performance. However, marked differences were observed between CON and ROT in some individuals, suggesting that ROT may be beneficial in some instances.Sport psychology researchers have long been interested in identifying the psychological qualities of peak athletic performance (see Krane & Williams, 2006: In Applied sport psychology: Personal growth for peak performance, edited by J. M. Williams. New York: MacGraw-Hill). Several recall studies, involving Olympic and World Champions, have provided insights into how athletes develop these qualities (e.g. Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002: Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 154–171). However, there has been limited research investigating the psychological qualities perceived essential during specific stages of athlete development. Furthermore, the existent studies exploring ideal psychological qualities have tended to adopt the perspective of the athlete, while the perceptions of significant others (e.g. the coach) involved in athlete development, have often been overlooked. The importance of obtaining multiple perspectives is reinforced by investigations that have reported inconsistencies between coaches’ and athletes’ perceptions (e.g. Vargas-Tonsing, Myers, & Feltz, 2004: The Sport Psychologist, 18, 397–414). Therefore, the aim of the present research was to examine the perceived ideal psychological qualities deemed relevant to elite pathway under-16 rugby, and compare perceptions shared by under-16 players with the views expressed by their coaches and players who recently progressed from this level (under-18). Eight focus group interviews were conducted with under-16 (n¼28) and under-18 (n¼10) male rugby players, and coaches (n¼7). Each group consisted of 4–10 participants and lasted between 45 and 60 minutes. 11 first-order and 35 second-order themes emerged from content analysis of the data. Under-16 players generated the broadest set of qualities, and emphasised the importance of determination, self-confidence, and effective regulation of performance state. Under-18 players and coaches were more focused in their consideration of the desired qualities in under-16 district level rugby players. For under-18 players, themes of note included successful adaptation to novel environments and taking responsibility for oneself. Themes perceived critical by coaches included self-aware learning through honest selfappraisal and successful application of coach information into physical practice and performance. Altogether, the themes support previous research into the psychological characteristics of elite competitors, and contribute to our understanding of their manifestation in young talented team sport athletes. Moreover, this study extends previous research through the inclusion of the coaches’ perspectives of the ideal psychological qualities in their athletes. The information gathered should provide insight into the development of mental skills training programmes for this population.Many (or even most) fundamental cognitive operations that are driven by stimuli in our environment occur implicitly and generate knowledge that is ‘‘always ahead of the capability of its possessor to explicate’’ (Reber, 1993: Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: An essay on the cognitive unconscious. Oxford: Oxford University Press). The study of implicit processes in sport has developed primarily within the field of attention and motor learning (for a review see Masters & Maxwell, 2004. In Skill acquisition in sport: research, theory and practice, edited by A. M. Williams & N. J. Hodges. London: Routledge). Helmholtz (1867: Treatise on physiological optics. New York: Dover) proposed that perception relies upon a process of ‘‘unconscious inference’’ in which knowledge is encoded automatically without awareness, but it is only recently that researchers have begun to explore more directly the relationship between perception and performance in different sport environments and to realise that our perceptions of the environment can be dramatically influenced by cognitive processes of which we are unaware (see, for example, Masters, van der Kamp, & Jackson, 2007: Psychological Science, 18, 222–223). The purpose of this symposium is to present recent research that explores the influence of implicit processes on perception and performance in a variety of different sport contexts. Rich Masters (Institute of Human Performance, The University of Hong Kong) will provide a brief overview of the background to the work and will show how the different presentations are integrated within the theme of implicit cognition in sport. Rob Jackson (School of Sport & Education, Brunel University) will discuss the different ways in which expert performers and novice performers (in soccer) are influenced by deceptive movements that are designed to cause (mis)perception. John van der Kamp (Research Institute Move, VU University) will discuss whether goalkeepers can influence the perceptions (and perhaps the actions) of penalty-takers by imitating visual illusions. Jamie Poolton (Institute of Human Performance, The University of Hong Kong) will present a series of studies that show reputation can have a dramatic effect on perceptions of the size of an opponent. Finally, Rich Masters will present a study, which suggests that psychological pressure amplifies perceptions of the size and weight of objects or implements in sport, but only in those performers who are successful rather than unsuccessful under pressure.