Andy Kirkpatrick

Chinese Pragmatic Norms and "China English.".

In this paper we shall first consider a selection of discourse and rhetorical norms of Modern Standard Chinese and then contrast them with a comparable selection of discourse and rhetorical norms of an ‘inner circle’ variety of English. As the transfer of discourse and rhetorical norms from a first to a second language commonly occurs, we predict that a Chinese variety of English is characterised by a number of discourse and rhetorical norms derived from Chinese. We argue that the presence of these L1 discourse and rhetorical norms should not be seen as ‘deviations’ from Anglo norms, but that, as Chinese speakers are more likely to use the language with other English speakers in the East Asian region rather than with speakers of inner circle varieties of English, the Chinese variety of English is actually a more culturally appropriate model of English than any superimposed ‘Anglo’ norm. Our discussion also considers the importance in China traditionally attached to ‘models’ and ‘standards’ and speculates on the extent to which educators and officials in China are likely to accept a Chinese variety of English as a model for the classroom.

How Much Do They Understand? Lectures, students and comprehension

A recent study into tertiary literacy (Reid, Kirkpatrick, & Mulligan, 1998) found that many students have problems with comprehension and note-taking in lectures and that students from non-English speaking backgrounds (NESB) reported particular difficulty. Despite the increase in the number of international students attending Australian universities over the past decade, it seems that many lecturers are still failing to accommodate the cultural and linguistic diversity of the classes they teach. The study reported here aimed to determine the nature and extent of problems experienced by NESB students in comprehending lectures and found significant gaps in understanding: slightly fewer than 1 in 10 NESB students was able to understand the content and intent of their lectures very well. More disturbingly, almost one-quarter of them had not understood much of the lectures at all. The paper offers some suggested strategies for change—for those who prepare students for university study, for the students themselves, and for the lecturers who teach them.

Traditional Chinese text structures and their influence on the writing in Chinese and English of contemporary mainland Chinese students

Abstract It has been argued that traditional Chinese text structures, in particular the four-part qi-cheng-zhuan-he and the ba gu wen (eight-legged essay) structures continue to influence the written English of Chinese students. In this article, the origins of these two traditional Chinese text structures will be described and examples of them given. In considering their influence upon the contemporary writing of mainland Chinese students, it will be argued that, as these structures do not influence the writing in Chinese of these students, they are unlikely to exert a great influence upon their writing in English. A survey of contemporary Chinese textbooks on composition suggests that the prescriptive advice given in these texts reflects contemporary “Anglo-American” rhetorical style more than traditional Chinese style.

English as the official working language of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): Features and strategies

The Bangkok Declaration of 8 August 1967 heralded the formation of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). While today all ten nations of Southeast Asia are members, the number of founder member states was only five: Indonesia; Malaysia; the Philippines; Singapore; and Thailand. Brunei joined in 1984, Vietnam in 1995, Laos and Burma (Myanmar) in 1997 and finally, Cambodia, in 1999. In what may strike members of the European Union as particularly remarkable, the use of languages was not stipulated in the Bangkok Declaration. English has always been the sole official and working language of the group. In her study of the process behind this adoption of English as the only official language, Okudaira interviewed a number of key ASEAN figures and received answers, of which these are representative:

English in ASEAN: Implications for Regional Multilingualism.

Abstract The Charter of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was officially adopted in February 2009. Article 34 of the Charter states that, ‘The working language of ASEAN shall be English’. In this article, I first briefly trace the development of English in ASEAN and demonstrate that, even in those countries of the ASEAN group which were not colonies of Britain or the United States, English has become increasingly important. I show that, in almost all the cases, the language policies of ASEAN countries require people to learn their respective national language and English. This combination of the learning of English is along with the learning of a national language, which can be a national lingua franca such as Bahasa Indonesia in Indonesia and Filipino in the Philippines. Consequently, local and indigenous languages, other than the national language, are being replaced by English in many school curricula and also in other domains. It is also rare to find government schools in ASEAN teaching the national languages of other ASEAN states. I conclude by considering the implications of this for multilingualism in the region.

English as an Asian lingua franca: the 'lingua franca approach' and implications for language education policy

Abstract The major issues confronting language policy makers in East and Southeast Asia typically include balancing the need for English as the international lingua franca and language of modernization, a local lingua franca as the national language for national unity, and local languages as languages of identity and community. Choices faced by policy makers include which languages to use as media of instruction and when, and how to ensure that the languages complement each other rather than compete with each other. In this paper, particular focus will be placed on the countries which make up the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), especially in light of the recently ratified ASEAN charter which enshrines the position of English as the sole working language of the organisation. The perceived need for the importance of English has resulted in the current and increasing regional trend to include English as early as possible in the primary school curriculum, often as a medium of instruction. Even with this increase in English in the government school system, parents will often make substantial financial and emotional sacrifices and choose to send their children to private schools (including those overseas), where they can be taught through English. “To actually forsake the public school system that teaches in your own language for the private one that teaches in English is an increasingly common phenomenon” (Wang Gungwu 2007: xiv). A major consequence of these moves towards the learning of English in both public and private education systems is that local Asian languages are overlooked in the school curricula. Indeed it is hard to find a single government education system in ASEAN which requires the teaching of any of the languages of its fellow member states. The exception is Mandarin, which is increasing in demand through its rising instrumental value. While accepting that English needs to be taught, it will be argued that it is essential that the perceptions that are leading to the trends outlined above be challenged. A proposal for ways of combining English and local languages in more equitable and effective ways will be presented and a ‘Lingua Franca Approach’ to teaching English will be proposed.

English as a medium of instruction in Asian education (from primary to tertiary): Implications for local languages and local scholarship

This article will review and critique the general trends towards the significant increase in the teaching of English and the use of English as a medium of instruction in education throughout East and Southeast Asia. I shall focus on two levels. First I shall discuss the situation as regards the role of English in primary schools and then consider its role in tertiary education. I shall argue that the trend towards the ever earlier introduction of English into the primary curriculum, along with the push for the relevant national language, is not only pedagogically ill-advised for the great majority of primary school children in the region, but also represents a serious threat to local languages and, perhaps most importantly, to children’s sense of identity. The increasing trend towards English–medium programmes at the tertiary level also threatens local languages and the status and value of knowledge and scholarship written and disseminated in languages other than English. At the same time, ‘indigenous’ knowledge disseminated through English, while it may reach an international audience, may be essentially reframed through being translated into English. I shall conclude with recommendations designed to encourage multilingualism in local languages at the primary level and the implementation of bilingual policies at the tertiary level.

English as an ASEAN Lingua Franca: Implications for Research and Language Teaching

Abstract It is accepted that: there are currently more so-called non-native speakers of English than there are native speakers, that most current learners of English in the SE Asian region are more likely to use English with fellow learners from within the region than with people who speak native-speaker varieties, and that English is increasingly used as a lingua franca within the SE Asian region.

English as a Medium of Instruction in East and Southeast Asian Universities

In this chapter I shall consider the increasing shift to the use of English as a medium of instruction (EMI) in East and Southeast Asia, with the focus on the university sector. I shall also discuss possible implications of the trend towards EMI in Asian universities for the Australian university sector. The chapter begins with a brief discussion of the recently published Australian Government White Paper, Australia in the Asian Century and this is followed by summary of recent developments concerning the use of EMI in selected European universities. The main part of the paper reviews and discusses the adoption of EMI among selected universities in Asia. Some tentative predictions regarding the use of English and Asian languages in higher education in Australasia conclude the chapter.

Researching English as a Lingua Franca in Asia: the Asian Corpus of English (ACE) project

Abstract The major role of English in Asia today is as a lingua franca. English is the de facto lingua franca of the grouping of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and with the signing of the ASEAN Charter in February 2009 assumed official status as the sole working language of ASEAN. English is also the working language of the extended grouping known as ASEAN + 3, which includes the ten states of ASEAN plus China, Japan and Korea. To date, however, little research has been done into English as a lingua franca in Asia. In this article I shall describe the Asian Corpus of English (ACE) project in which a number of teams across East and Southeast Asia are collaborating. Our aim is to compile a million-word corpus of naturally occurring, spoken, interactive English being used as a lingua franca in Asia. A team led by Professor Seidlhofer of the University of Vienna has just completed the VOICE corpus, a million-word corpus of European ELF. The Asian ELF team will ensure, as far as possible, that the Asian corpus is comparable with the VOICE corpus, in order to enable researchers to compare the features and use of Asian ELF with those of European ELF.