Anette Johansen

The Hi Five study: Design of a school-based randomized trial to reduce infections and improve hygiene and well-being among 6-15 year olds in Denmark

BackgroundInfectious illnesses such as influenza and diarrhea are leading causes of absenteeism among Danish school children. Interventions in school settings addressing hand hygiene have shown to reduce the number of infectious illnesses. However, most of these studies include small populations and almost none of them are conducted as randomized controlled trials. The overall aim of the Hi Five study was to develop, implement and evaluate a multi-component school-based intervention to improve hand hygiene and well-being and to reduce the prevalence of infections among school children in intervention schools by 20% compared to control schools. This paper describes the development and the evaluation design of Hi Five.Methods/designThe Hi Five study was designed as a tree-armed cluster-randomized controlled trial. A national random sample of schools (n = 44) was randomized to one of two intervention groups (n = 29) or to a control group with no intervention (n = 15). A total of 8,438 six to fifteen-year-old school children were enrolled in the study. The Hi Five intervention consisted of three components: 1) a curriculum component 2) mandatory daily hand washing before lunch 3) extra cleaning of school toilets during the school day. Baseline data was collected from December 2011 to April 2012. The intervention period was August 2012 to June 2013. The follow-up data was collected from December 2012 to April 2013.DiscussionThe Hi Five study fills a gap in international research. This large randomized multi-component school-based hand hygiene intervention is the first to include education on healthy and appropriate toilet behavior as part of the curriculum. No previous studies have involved supplementary cleaning at the school toilets as an intervention component. The study will have the added value of providing new knowledge about usability of short message service (SMS, text message) for collecting data on infectious illness and absenteeism in large study populations.Trial registrationCurrent Controlled Trials ISRCTN19287682, 21 December 2012.

Process evaluation of a multi-component intervention to reduce infectious diseases and improve hygiene and well-being among school children: the Hi Five study

The Hi Five study was a three-armed cluster randomized controlled trial designed to reduce infections and improve hygiene and well-being among pupils. Participating schools (n = 43) were randomized into either control (n = 15) or one of two intervention groups (n = 28). The intervention consisted of three components: (i) a curriculum (ii) mandatory daily hand washing before lunch (iii) extra cleaning of school toilets. The aim of this study was to evaluate the implementation and to identify challenges to program implementation. Several data sources were used, including observations of school toilets, semi-structured interviews with school coordinators (n = 4), focus groups with pupils (n = 6) and teachers (n = 5), and questionnaires among pupils (n = 5440), teachers (n = 387) and school coordinators (n = 28). This study indicates that the curriculum was successfully implemented at most schools, and that teachers and pupils reacted positively to this part of the intervention. However, daily hand washing before lunch seems to be difficult to implement. Overall, the implementation process was affected by several factors such as poor sanitary facilities, lack of time and prioritization and objections against the increasing tendency to place the responsibility for child-rearing tasks on schools. This study reveals the strong and weak parts of the Hi Five study and can guide program improvement.

Effect Evaluation of a Randomized Trial to Reduce Infectious Illness and Illness-Related Absenteeism Among Schoolchildren: The Hi Five Study

Background: Previous school-based hand hygiene interventions have reported to successfully reduce infectious illness among schoolchildren. But few studies have tested the effect in large populations with adequate statistical power and analyses. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether a school-based multicomponent intervention to improve handwashing among schoolchildren, the Hi Five study, succeeded in reducing infectious illness and illness-related absenteeism in schools. Methods: The Hi Five study was a three-armed cluster-randomized controlled trial involving 43 randomly selected Danish schools; two intervention arms involving 14 schools each, and 15 control schools. Infectious illness days, infectious illness episodes and illness-related absenteeism were estimated in multilevel regressions, based on available cases of text messages answered by parents and based on questionnaire data reported by schoolchildren, respectively. Results: At follow-up, children in the intervention schools did not differ from the control schools in number of illness days [odds ratio (OR)I-arm I: 0.91 (0.77–1.07) and ORI-arm II: 0.94 (0.79–1.12)] and illness episodes [ORI-arm I: 0.95 (0.81–1.11) and ORI-arm II: 0.98 (0.84–1.16)] or in reporting illness-related absenteeism [ORI-arm I: 1.09 (0.83–1.43) & ORI-arm II: 1.06 (0.81–1.40)]. Conclusions: The multicomponent Hi Five intervention achieved no difference in the number of illness days, illness episodes or illness-related absenteeism among children in intervention schools compared with control schools. It is noteworthy that one of the main components in the intervention, a mandatory daily handwashing before lunch, was only implemented by 1 of 3 of teachers in intervention schools.

Short communication: Persistent socio-economic inequality in frequent headache among Danish adolescents from 1991 to 2014

The association between socio‐economic status (SES) and headache among adolescents is an understudied issue, and no study has examined whether such an association changes over time. The aim was to examine trends in socio‐economic inequality in frequent headache among 11‐ to 15‐year‐olds in Denmark from 1991 to 2014, using occupational social class (OSC) as indicator of SES.

Importance of implementation level when evaluating the effect of the Hi Five Intervention on infectious illness and illness-related absenteeism

Background: There is limited research on the importance of implementation when evaluating the effect of hand hygiene interventions in school settings in developed countries. The aim of this study was to examine the association between an implementation index and the effect of the intervention. The Hi Five Intervention was evaluated in a 3‐armed cluster randomized controlled trial involving 43 randomly selected Danish schools. Methods: Analyses investigating the association between implementation of the Hi Five Intervention and infectious illness days, infectious illness episodes, illness‐related absenteeism, and hand hygiene were carried out in a multilevel model (school, class, and child). Results: The level of implementation was associated with hand hygiene and potentially associated with number of infectious illness days and infectious illness episodes among children. This association was not found for illness‐related absenteeism. Conclusions: Classes that succeeded in achieving a high level of implementation of the Hi Five Intervention had a lower number of infectious illness days and infectious illness episodes, suggesting that the Hi Five Intervention, if implemented adequately, may be relevant as a tool to decrease infectious illness in a Danish school setting.