Angela Carpenter

The EU directive on port reception facilities for ship-generated waste and cargo residues: current availability of facilities in the North Sea

The aim of this paper is to evaluate the current availability of port reception facilities within the North Sea area. The evaluation is based primarily on original survey data from the summer of 2001, supplemented by existing information from surveys conducted by the International Maritime Organization. The EU Directive on port reception facilities for ship-generated waste etc. (Directive 2000/59/EC) requires that all ports provide facilities to meet the needs of those vessels normally calling in at them. In order for the Directive to be implemented effectively, the physical availability of such facilities is vital. This paper audits the wide range of port types within the region and also outlines the wide range of vessel types using these ports, and their requirements for a range of facilities. On the basis of this analysis, conclusions are drawn about the extent to which the provision requirement of the Directive is already being met.

European Maritime Safety Agency Activities in the Mediterranean Sea

The seas and oceans of the EU, together with the more than 12,000 commercial ports located in EU coastal states, play a major role in Europe’s economic security. Its seas and oceans are used to transport of goods and people from within and outside the EU, to produce food from fisheries and aquaculture, and to produce energy from both non-renewable (oil and gas) and renewable (wave, wind) energy sources. In order to protect Europe’s marine and coastal areas, the European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) plays a significant role in monitoring and protecting those maritime regions from pollution and ensuring the safety and security of ships operating in the region. EMSA has, since its establishment in 2002, developed a broad portfolio of operational and implementation services that it offers to the European Commission and EU Member States. For example, it provides a pollution prevention and response (PPR) service that provides operational assistance in the event of an oil spill at sea. It also provides an earth observation service with satellite-based oil spill detection through its CleanSeaNet (CSN) Service and vessel tracking through its SafeSeaNet (SSN) Service. This enables EMSA to support both identification of pollution at sea and potentially locate the source of that pollution. This chapter provides a broad overview of the activities of EMSA before focussing on specific activities relating to oil pollution in the Mediterranean Sea. It examines the availability of resources, ships and equipment, and different PPR activities taking place in the region. It also examines the availability of satellite imagery as a tool for oil spill detection during the period 2007–2011, for individual EU Member States in the region, together with more general observations post-2011.

Oil Pollution in the North Sea

This volume offers a review of measures taken at different levels to prevent oil inputs to the North Sea from sources such as shipping and oil installations. A range of data from satellites, remote sensing, aerial surveillance, in-situ monitoring, oil spill sampling and beached bird surveys presents a comprehensive portrait of trends in oil pollution over many years. Topics include Bonn Agreement-based actions to eliminate illegal and accidental pollution from ships, OSPAR monitoring of oil installations, EMSA CleanSeaNet activities, and an internationally approved common standard for oil spills presented by the Bonn-OSINet. A chapter on the role of the IMO in preventing oil pollution from ships provides an international context, while others discuss efforts being made at the national level. A decadal review of the state of the North Sea prepared by OSPAR supports the view that there has been a significant reduction of oil inputs to the sea. This thorough review addresses national and international agencies and government bodies, as well as policymakers and practitioners in the fields of shipping, ports and terminals, oil extraction and marine management. Further, it provides researchers with essential reference material on tools and techniques for monitoring oil pollution and offers a valuable resource for undergraduate and post-graduate students in the field of marine oil pollution.

Monitoring Oil Pollution from Oil and Gas Installations in the North Sea

Oil and gas installations are a source of oil inputs to the North Sea. Those inputs can include oil discharge as a result of production processes or from accidental spills. Two bodies play a major role in monitoring oil inputs from those installations. The OSPAR Commission is responsible for monitoring oil and gas installations against various performance standards, collects samples from those installations to determine whether those standards have been met or exceeded, and also monitors accidental spills. The Bonn Agreement Secretariat also plays a role through its aerial surveillance and, more recently, satellite monitoring activities in the North Sea region. Once a spill has been identified and confirmed as being mineral oil rather than other types of oils or even algae or a natural event, the Bonn Agreement seeks to identify the source of that oil. Through a programme of surveillance activities, it also specifically monitors the areas around oil and gas fields. This chapter provides an overview of the activities of the OSPAR Commission and Bonn Secretariat as they relate to oil and gas installations and examines data on inputs of oil to the marine environment to identify trends in oil pollution from those installations.

Shipping and Oil Transportation in the Mediterranean Sea

This chapter starts by putting oil shipping in a Mediterranean context, with a review of the different ways to transport crude and refined oils in large quantities and over long distances. It then considers the hazards presented by pipelines and tankers, both in terms of the oil market today and how it will probably be in a decade. The chapter then presents the current state of knowledge concerning (1) the ship accidents in the Mediterranean, and (2) operational spills in the region and more broadly. The discussion on operational spills is complemented by an analysis of the possible contribution of satellite imagery to the establishment of both proof of pollution and identification of the polluter. Finally, it appears that the necessary tools to combat operational spills and to deal with large accidental spills exceed the individual capacities of the different countries in the region, rendering international cooperation essential.

The Barcelona Convention and Its Role in Oil Pollution Prevention in the Mediterranean Sea

An oil spill, whether via dumping from ships and aircraft, from operational or accidental discharge, from land-based sources or from offshore commercial activities, is an event that has been portrayed by both academics and environmental specialists as a form of “disaster” that causes irreparable damage to the marine environment. The Mediterranean region, like other regions of the globe, is considered to have unique marine features that make the region particularly vulnerable to oil pollution, and hence, there is a dire need for a framework that can assist the coastal states to combine their efforts when trying to prevent, abate, combat and eliminate all potential and actual threats from oil pollution. With the burgeoning concern regarding pollution caused by oil and generic substances, the Barcelona Convention and its Protocols appear as a legislative “soft law” tool that has the full potential, if implemented at the national level, to tackle oil pollution from all potential sources. There is a certain cadence in the way the Barcelona Convention and its Protocols have emerged over time, inevitably forming the most appropriate basis for the coastal states of the Mediterranean Sea area to take actions from a platform that can be labelled as “collaborative”. As such, the Barcelona Convention and the Protocols relevant to oil pollution speak to those states as beginning with the notion that efforts to deal with oil pollution need to be combined. They also prescribe how those states can limit and intervene promptly. This prescription is also coupled with a form of recognition that there ought to be a consistent approach when dealing with an element that has a diametric personality, i.e. advantageous when used for operational purposes and disadvantageous when there is a spill. This chapter provides an overview of the Barcelona Convention and proceeds with an incisive examination of the Protocols that provide guidance to states on how to protect and preserve the Mediterranean marine environment from oil pollution.

European Maritime Safety Agency CleanSeaNet Activities in the North Sea

The transport of goods and people both within and from outside of the European Union (EU) depends heavily on its seas and oceans and the ports located on Europe’s coasts. The European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) plays a significant role in monitoring and protecting those maritime regions of Europe from pollution and also in areas such as maritime safety and maritime security. Since its establishment in 2002, the role of EMSA has developed so that it offers a broad range of implementation and operational services to the European Commission and to EU Member States. The operational tasks of EMSA include providing a pollution prevention service, for example, and Earth Observation Services using satellite imagery. In particular, its CleanSeaNet (CSN) Service offers a European satellite-based oil spill and vessel detection service to help identify pollution entering the marine environment from ships in EU waters. This chapter provides an overview of the activities of EMSA in general and then considers in more detail the CSN Service. It examines data on satellite imagery for the period 2007–2011 for the North Sea region of Europe and identifies how those images have contributed to monitoring the region to identify oil inputs to the sea.

Oil pollution in the North Sea: the impact of governance measures on oil pollution over several decades

Oil pollution entering the marine environment has been an issue of concern for many decades. It can come from riverine or land-based sources, accidental and intentional discharges from ships, or as a by-product of offshore oil extraction. Growing awareness of the impact of oil pollution on the marine environment has led, since the late 1960s, to the introduction of measures to reduce or eliminate pollution from shipping and the offshore oil industry. A framework for environmental protection of the North Sea has developed over many decades through international agreements, regional cooperation, and national measures, while education has also played an important role with modern-day sailors being given due training to understand that dumping waste at sea is illegal in many areas, and is harmful to the marine environment. This paper presents data on trends in pollution from ships and oil installations. While significant reductions in oil pollution have been identified over more than two decades, there remain some areas where action is needed to reduce inputs still further, especially from oil and gas platforms. This paper illustrates that international cooperation can result in a reduction in marine pollution leading to a cleaner environment.

The Role of REMPEC in Prevention of and Response to Pollution from Ships in the Mediterranean Sea

With 20% of the global tank ship maritime traffic, and enhanced offshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation activities in the Mediterranean Sea, the risks related to oil pollution, inter alia, from ships are simultaneously increased. Governed by the Contracting Parties of the Barcelona Convention, REMPEC, in turn, assists Mediterranean coastal states in ratifying, implementing and administering conventions and generally accepted international rules and standards implemented by competent international organisations. The intention is ostensibly clear in so far as REMEPEC’s mission is to play an important role in mitigating all probabilities and possibilities of pollution from ships. In order to remain in the vanguard of action to prevent and reduce pollution from ships, REMPEC has further committed itself to assisting Contracting Parties of the Barcelona Convention to strengthen preparedness and response capacities through multifarious pragmatic actions, e.g. including remote assistance, on-site assistance, development of contingency planning, development and dissemination of guidelines, training and education and tools. Over the years, there has been a steady increase in the body of general and descriptive literature dedicated to the work of REMPEC. This chapter, however, concentrates on a more specific yet important area. As indicated in the title, this chapter provides an overview of the role of REMPEC pertaining to pollution from ships, with a special focus on oil pollution.

Oil Pollution in the Waters of the Danish Sector of the North Sea

This chapter deals with cooperation, organization, responsibility, statistics, preventive measures, equipment, etc. in relation to maintaining a clean marine environment in the Danish sector of the North Sea including the coast and harbours. In addition to international conventions, national legislation regulates responsibilities and organization with regard to aerial surveillance and oil spill response. Through multilateral agreements such as the Bonn Agreement, cooperation takes place with other North Sea countries with regard to aerial surveillance, oil spill response, operations, exercises, etc. Besides this international cooperation, there are a range of national collaborations between a number of national authorities and units which also takes place, not only in relation to ships but in relation to oil rigs as well, with an additional set of rules drawn up for the latter. Implementing preventive measures on the marine environment are also discussed in this chapter, together with measures such as vessel traffic zones which have yet to be established in the busiest maritime areas in the Danish part of the North Sea. The section on aerial surveillance and oil pollution statistics examines the numbers of incidents and numbers of oil slicks from ships and platforms. A steady decrease in mineral oil spills from ships has occurred over the last 10 years. During that period only one event requiring action to combat an oil spill has taken place in the Danish sector of the North Sea.