Angela J. Narayan

Child Development in the Context of Disaster, War, and Terrorism: Pathways of Risk and Resilience

This review highlights progress over the past decade in research on the effects of mass trauma experiences on children and youth, focusing on natural disasters, war, and terrorism. Conceptual advances are reviewed in terms of prevailing risk and resilience frameworks that guide basic and translational research. Recent evidence on common components of these models is evaluated, including dose effects, mediators and moderators, and the individual or contextual differences that predict risk or resilience. New research horizons with profound implications for health and well-being are discussed, particularly in relation to plausible models for biological embedding of extreme stress. Strong consistencies are noted in this literature, suggesting guidelines for disaster preparedness and response. At the same time, there is a notable shortage of evidence on effective interventions for child and youth victims. Practical and theory-informative research on strategies to protect children and youth victims and promote their resilience is a global priority.

Resilience Processes in Development: Four Waves of Research on Positive Adaptation in the Context of Adversity

How do children and adolescents “make it” when their development is threatened by poverty, neglect, maltreatment, war, violence, or exposure to oppression, racism, and discrimination? What protects them when their parents are disabled by substance abuse, mental illness, or serious physical illness? How do we explain the phenomenon of resilience—children succeeding in spite of serious challenges to their development—and put this knowledge to work for the benefit of children and society? The scientific study of resilience emerged around 1970 when a group of pioneering researchers began to notice the phenomenon of positive adaptation among subgroups of children who were considered “at risk” for developing later psychopathology (Masten, 2001, 2012).

The relations among maternal depressive disorder, maternal Expressed Emotion, and toddler behavior problems and attachment

Direct and indirect relations among maternal depression, maternal Expressed Emotion (EE: Self- and Child-Criticism), child internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and child attachment were examined. Participants were mothers with depression (n = 130) and comparison mothers (n = 68) and their toddlers (M age = 20 mo.; 53% male). Assessments included the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (maternal depression); the Five Minute Speech Sample (EE); the Child Behavior Checklist (toddler behavior problems); the Strange Situation (child attachment). Direct relations were significant linking: 1) maternal depression with both EE and child functioning; 2) Child-Criticism with child internalizing and externalizing symptoms; 3) Self-Criticism with child attachment. Significant indirect relations were found linking maternal depression with: 1) child externalizing behaviors via Child-Criticism; 2) child internalizing behaviors via Self- and Child-Criticism; and 3) child attachment via Self-Criticism. Findings are consistent with a conceptual model in which maternal EE mediates relations between maternal depression and toddler socio-emotional functioning.

Developmental timing and continuity of exposure to interparental violence and externalizing behavior as prospective predictors of dating violence.

This study investigated the prospective pathways of childrens exposure to interparental violence (EIPV) in early and middle childhood and externalizing behavior in middle childhood and adolescence as developmental predictors of dating violence perpetration and victimization at ages 23 and 26 years. Participants (N = 168) were drawn from a longitudinal study of low-income families. Path analyses examined whether timing or continuity of EIPV predicted dating violence and whether timing or continuity of externalizing behavior mediated these pathways. Results indicated that EIPV in early childhood directly predicted perpetration and victimization at age 23. There were significant indirect effects from EIPV to dating violence through externalizing behavior in adolescence and life stress at age 23. Independent of EIPV, externalizing behavior in middle childhood also predicted dating violence through externalizing behavior in adolescence and life stress at age 23, but this pathway stemmed from maltreatment. These results highlight that the timing of EIPV and both the timing and the continuity of externalizing behavior are critical risks for the intergenerational transmission of dating violence. The findings support a developmental perspective that negative early experiences and childrens externalizing behavior are powerful influences for dating violence in early adulthood.

Trauma, adversity, and parent-child relationships among young children experiencing homelessness

This study examined experiences of adversity and potentially traumatic life events among 138 young children (56% female) residing with their families in emergency housing. Experiences of these children were examined from a developmental perspective, testing the impact of cumulative adversity on trauma symptoms, other emotional/behavior problems, and executive functioning in relation to the quality of observed parent-child interactions. Cumulative adversity was related to children’s trauma symptoms and total problem scores. Quality of observed parentchild interactions related to fewer child symptoms, congruent with a promotive role. Quality of parent-child interactions also moderated the associations between adversity and both specific trauma symptoms and broad emotional/behavior problems, consistent with an expected protective effect. Parenting quality was generally associated with better child executive functioning, consistent with a promotive rather than a protective effect among homeless children. Findings are discussed in the context of family homelessness, including chronic poverty and acute or ongoing adversity.

Risk, Vulnerability, and Protective Processes of Parental Expressed Emotion for Children's Peer Relationships in Contexts of Parental Violence.

This study examined risk, vulnerability, and protective processes of parental expressed emotion for childrens peer relationships in families living in emergency shelters with high rates of exposure to parental violence (EPV). Parental criticism and negativity were hypothesized to exacerbate the association between EPV and poorer peer relations, whereas parental warmth was expected to buffer this association. Participants included 138 homeless parents (M = 30.77 years, SD = 6.33, range = 20.51–57.32 years; 64% African American, 12% Caucasian, 24% other) and their 4-to 6-year-old children (43.5% male; M = 4.83, SD = .58, range = 4.83–6.92 years; 67% African American, 2% Caucasian, 31% other). Families were assessed during the summer at three urban shelters, with parents completing the Five-Minute Speech Sample (FMSS), later scored for criticism, negativity, and warmth, and interview items about EPV. Teachers were subsequently contacted in the fall about childrens classroom behavior, and they provided ratings of peer relations. Demographic factors, parental internalizing symptoms, and observed parental harshness were examined as covariates. Regression analyses indicated an interaction of EPV and warmth, consistent with a moderating effect of expressed emotion for EPV and peer relations, although no interactions were found for criticism or negativity. Observed harshness also directly predicted worse peer relations. Parental warmth may be protective for positive peer relations among impoverished families with high levels of EPV. The FMSS is discussed as an efficient tool with potential for both basic clinical research and preventative interventions designed to target or assess change in parental expressed emotion.

Personal, dyadic, and contextual resilience in parents experiencing homelessness

Adopting a developmental psychopathology (DP) perspective, the present study systematically reviewed the quantitative literature on positive functioning and outcomes in parents experiencing homelessness. Studies were identified from PubMed, PsycInfo, and Web of Science using an exhaustive list of key terms. Of 3443 total studies screened, 219 were inspected, 176 were excluded, and 43 were included. Included studies fell into three outcome categories: the ability to function well personally (cope effectively, meet basic family needs, experience reduced psychopathology); dyadically (demonstrate positive parenting practices and promote child adjustment); and contextually (exit episodes of homelessness and avoid shelter re-entry). Results also reflected personal, dyadic, and contextual independent variables associated with each positive outcome category. Many parents experiencing homelessness display positive outcomes, and many factors support positive functioning. Future research should replicate these findings and examine multilevel parental functioning to help bridge the gap between the DP theoretical perspective and the quantitative evidence for parental resilience as a process.

Intergenerational Continuity of Adverse Childhood Experiences in Homeless Families: Unpacking Exposure to Maltreatment Versus Family Dysfunction.

Despite the expanding research on adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and corpus of studies on intergenerational maltreatment in high-risk families, studies have not examined intergenerational ACEs more broadly, much less in severely disadvantaged families. This study investigated the intergenerational continuity of ACEs in mothers and young children aged 4 to 6 years living in emergency homeless shelters. It also examined whether unpacking ACEs into categories of exposure to maltreatment versus family dysfunction affected intergenerational continuity patterns or child socioemotional problems in school. Negative parenting, in the form of observed inept coercive discipline with children, and cumulative sociodemographic risk were examined as additional predictors of child ACEs and socioemotional problems. Mothers (N = 95; aged 20–45; 64.2% African American, 3.2% African Native, 11.6% Caucasian, 7.4% biracial/multiracial, and 13.6% other) completed questionnaires on parent and child ACEs and cumulative risk factors. They participated in videotaped parent–child interactions rated for observed coercive discipline, and teachers provided reports of children’s socioemotional problems. Results indicated that higher parental ACEs predicted higher child ACEs, with higher numbers of parental ACEs in either category (maltreatment or family dysfunction) predicting higher levels of child ACEs in both categories. However, child exposure to maltreatment, but not family dysfunction, significantly predicted elevations in children’s socioemotional problems. Findings underscore the role of intergenerational childhood adversity in homeless families and also emphasize that unpacking ACEs in children may illuminate key areas of vulnerability for school adjustment.

Disturbances in reality testing as markers of risk in offspring of parents with bipolar disorder: a systematic review from a developmental psychopathology perspective

This comprehensive review examined the prevalence and progression of disturbances in reality testing (DRT), defined as psychotic symptoms, cognitive disruptions, and thought problems, in offspring of parents with bipolar disorder (O‐BD). Our approach was grounded in a developmental psychopathology perspective and considered a broader phenotype of risk within the bipolar–schizophrenia spectrum as measured by categorical and dimensional assessments of DRT in high‐risk youth.

The development of thought problems: a longitudinal family risk study of offspring of bipolar, unipolar, and well parents.

There is growing evidence that many offspring of parents with bipolar disorder (BD) will develop moderate to severe forms of psychopathology during childhood and adolescence, including thought problems. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the developmental progression of thought problems within the context of a family risk study. Repeated assessments of thought problems, spanning approximately 15 years, were conducted in offspring (N = 192 from 98 families) of parents diagnosed with BD (O-BD), unipolar depression (O-UNI), or no significant psychiatric or medical problems (O-WELL). Survival analysis showed that the O-BD group had the greatest estimated probability of developing thought problems over time, followed by O-UNI, and then O-WELL and O-BD exhibiting higher levels of persistence than O-WELL. Parent-reported thought problems in childhood and adolescence predicted a range of problems in young adulthood. Disturbances in reality testing and other atypical behaviors are likely to disrupt progression through important developmental periods and to associate with poor outcomes. These findings are likely relevant to preventing the occurrence or progression of problems in offspring of bipolar parents. The study of thought problems across development represents an important area of continued research in children at risk for development of affective disorders.