Anita Alves Pena

Maternal benzene exposure and low birth weight risk in the United States: A natural experiment in gasoline reformulation

We investigate the relationship between maternal exposure to benzene and birth weight outcomes for resident births in the United States in 1996 and 1999, taking advantage of a natural experiment afforded by the regulation of benzene content of gasoline in various American cities. Regression results show that a unit increase (μg/m(3)) in maternal exposure to benzene reduces birth weight by 16.5 g (95% CI, 17.6 to 15.4). A unit increase in benzene exposure increases the odds of a low birth weight event by 7%. Similarly, a 1 μg/m(3) increase in benzene concentration increases the odds of very low birth weight event by a multiplicative factor of 1.23 (95% CI, 1.19 to 1.28). Difference-in-differences analyses show that birth weight increased by 13.7 g (95% CI, 10.7 to 16.8) and the risk of low birth weight decreased by a factor of .95 (95% CI, .93 to .98) in counties experiencing a 25% decline in benzene concentrations from 1996 to 1999. Public health policy and economic implications of results are discussed.

Locational choices of the legal and illegal: the case of Mexican agricultural workers in the U.S.

This paper examines relationships between legal and illegal farmworker migration from Mexico and state-level labor market, agricultural, demographic, and public policy variables. The study uses a nationally representative farmworker survey providing direct legal status data. Consistent with previous literature, results indicate that personal and community networks are primary determinants of locational choices. Conversely, border enforcement is negatively related to migration to certain areas. Results are strongest for California migrants and for those with previous migration experience. Potential welfare and education program values are uncorrelated with locations of recent Mexican agricultural workers.

Poverty, Legal Status, and Pay Basis: The Case of U.S. Agriculture

U.S. farmworkers primarily are paid either on a piecerate or on a timerate basis. This article studies relationships among wage contracts, legal status, and poverty using a representative survey of employed farmworkers, which includes detailed information on legal status, including whether a worker is illegal. Results indicate that while piecerate workers earn more per hour on average, they work fewer hours and face greater poverty risk than their timerate counterparts. Furthermore, foreign-born workers, especially those who are undocumented, are overrepresented in piecerate positions, and analysis shows that the effect of piecerate pay on poverty is positive and correlated with being foreign-born.

Economies of scale and gender discrimination in transition: the case of the Republic of Tajikistan

This article tests for economies of scale and for evidence of discrimination based on gender lines in intra-household consumption allocations using data from the Living Standards Survey in the Republic of Tajikistan (TLSS). Overall results support the existence of household economies of scale in Tajikistan; however, empirical evidence supporting boy–girl discrimination is limited despite anecdotal evidence otherwise.

Effects of the Great Recession on the U.S. Agricultural Labor Market

We empirically test four hypotheses regarding differences between agricultural worker earnings (wages and bonuses) during recession and non-recessionary times, between agricultural worker time use during recession and non-recession times, between outcomes for undocumented and documented workers, and between outcomes for agricultural workers versus those working in other sectors of interest. Regression analyses show that the wages of documented (legal) seasonal agricultural workers increased more during the last three recessions than did the wages of undocumented agricultural workers and low-skilled nonagricultural workers. Bonus pay and weekly hours also increased for some workers, suggesting general increases in the financial wellbeing of employed agricultural workers during recessions.

Skills and Economic Inequality Across Race and Ethnicity in the United States: New Evidence on Wage Discrimination Using PIAAC:

Using skill and earnings data from the OECD’s newly released Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) and decomposition methodology from literature on economic distributions across countries, this research provides new evidence about the limited extent to which levels of and rates of return to skills explain unequal wage distributions in subgroups defined by race and ethnicity in the United States. The specific importance of PIAAC skill levels and of rates of return to skill varies substantially between racial and ethnic minorities relative to Whites and across the upper and lower parts of the wage distribution, while unobservables remain critical. These findings about differential characteristics of wage spreads are in contrast to relatively high correlations between the means of wage distributions and the more comprehensively defined skill measures observed in PIAAC (in comparison to those that have been examined in past literature), and are robust to the inclusion of other observable human capital and socioeconomic determinants. Results have implications for understanding how formal and informal institutions, discrimination, and labor market compensation practices may translate differentially across racial and ethnic groups and into observed variation in earnings.

Field Sanitation in U.S. Agriculture: Evidence from NAWS and Future Data Needs

ABSTRACT Objectives: We studied relationships between demographic and work-related characteristics and exposure to health-related risk associated with field sanitation within the population of U.S. farmworkers while critically examining adequacy of existing data toward understanding patterns. Methods: We used statistical and econometric large-sample data methods to analyze correlations between observable variables and access to field sanitation as measured by responses to the nationally and regionally representative National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS). Results: Analysis suggests that field sanitation risk is relatively low on U.S. farms, especially in the most current periods, though there is regional variation. A number of socioeconomic characteristics are predictive of remaining gaps in access to basic field sanitation. We found that men, workers with less education, workers who do not speak English well, and those from Mexico are systematically more likely to lack access to field sanitation than are other workers, all else equal. We also found associations with job-related characteristics. Conclusion: We conclude that regulatory standards do not affect all workers equally and that field sanitation risk for some workers has continued though the current period. Basic sanitation definitions provided in available data are limited and may not reflect the true extent of risk associated with the incomplete nature of field sanitation access. This motivates the importance of continued study of field sanitation and of targeted public policies.

Drug overdose and child maltreatment across the United States’ rural-urban continuum

This national study of US counties (n = 2963) investigated whether county-level drug overdose mortality is associated with maltreatment report rates, and whether the relationship between overdose mortality and maltreatment reports is moderated by a countys rural, non-metro or metro status. Data included county-level 2015 maltreatment reports from the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, modeled drug-overdose mortality from the Centers for Disease Control, United States Department of Agriculture Rural-Urban Continuum Codes, US Census demographic data and crime reports from the Federal Bureau of Investigation. All data were linked across counties. Zero-inflated negative binomial (ZINB) regression was used for county-level analysis. As hypothesized, results from the ZINB model showed a significant and positive relationship between drug overdose mortality and child maltreatment report rates (χ = 101.26, p < .0001). This relationship was moderated by position on the rural-urban continuum (χ=8.76, p = .01). For metro counties, there was a 1.9% increase in maltreatment report rate for each additional increment of overdose deaths (IRR=1.019, CI=[1.010, 1.028]). For non-metro counties, the rate of increase was 1.8% higher than for metro counties (IRR=1.018, CI=[1.006, 1.030]); for rural counties, the rate of increase was 1.2% higher than for metro counties (IRR=1.012, CI=[0.999, 1.026]). Additional research is needed to determine why the relationship between drug overdose mortality and maltreatment reports is stronger in non-metro and rural communities. One potential driver requiring additional inquiry is that access to mental and physical health care and substance use treatment may be more limited outside of metropolitan counties.

The effect of continuing education participation on outcomes of male and female agricultural workers in the USA

Job training and employment assistance programs aim to assist migrant and seasonal farmworkers and their dependents locate steady employment and develop job skills. This study investigates effects of educational programs on wages, annual time allocations, and poverty of male and female farmworkers and their families using regression analysis in comparison to propensity score matching. Continuing education participation is found to be associated with higher wages, though variation across program types is large and magnitudes across genders matter. Program participation is positively related to work weeks, and negatively related to weeks abroad and to poverty incidence.

Undocumented immigration and the business of farm labor contracting in the USA

Purpose - Farm labor contractors operate as intermediaries between farmworkers and agricultural employers by recruiting and supplying labor to US farms. In a political economy where there are employer sanctions for hiring workers without proper documentation, contractors share risk alongside final employers. Furthermore, contractors may facilitate quick employment matches during time sensitive agricultural tasks such as harvesting. For undocumented workers, using a contractor may decrease uncertainty associated with a foreign labor market and ease language barriers. The purpose of this paper is to examine the current role of labor contractors in delivering immigrant agricultural workers, particularly undocumented workers, to farms. Design/methodology/approach - Determinants of labor contractor use and relationships to final worker outcomes are examined using econometric methods and a large nationally-representative worker survey that is distinctive in that it distinguishes legal status. Findings - Undocumented farmworkers are shown to be more likely to use contractors than are documented workers, though statistical significance is sensitive to the inclusion of crop and task indicators, and wages and fringe compensation to workers who use contractors are lower, even after controlling for legal status. Research limitations/implications - The paper contributes to limited recent academic work on the role of labor contractors in US agriculture. Future work may examine ongoing changes to this role in the context of mutable immigration policy and public opinion. Practical implications - It is argued that the decline in labor contracting increases the need for employer-level bilingual communication skills and compliance with labor regulations. Originality/value - Understanding current dynamics of the agricultural labor market should be of value to scholars of rural economies, farm owners and agricultural policymakers.