Anita Mann

Inhibition of protein aggregation: supramolecular assemblies of arginine hold the key.

Background Aggregation of unfolded proteins occurs mainly through the exposed hydrophobic surfaces. Any mechanism of inhibition of this aggregation should explain the prevention of these hydrophobic interactions. Though arginine is prevalently used as an aggregation suppressor, its mechanism of action is not clearly understood. We propose a mechanism based on the hydrophobic interactions of arginine. Methodology We have analyzed arginine solution for its hydrotropic effect by pyrene solubility and the presence of hydrophobic environment by 1-anilino-8-naphthalene sulfonic acid fluorescence. Mass spectroscopic analyses show that arginine forms molecular clusters in the gas phase and the cluster composition is dependent on the solution conditions. Light scattering studies indicate that arginine exists as clusters in solution. In the presence of arginine, the reverse phase chromatographic elution profile of Alzheimers amyloid beta 1-42 (Aβ1-42) peptide is modified. Changes in the hydrodynamic volume of Aβ1-42 in the presence of arginine measured by size exclusion chromatography show that arginine binds to Aβ1-42. Arginine increases the solubility of Aβ1-42 peptide in aqueous medium. It decreases the aggregation of Aβ1-42 as observed by atomic force microscopy. Conclusions Based on our experimental results we propose that molecular clusters of arginine in aqueous solutions display a hydrophobic surface by the alignment of its three methylene groups. The hydrophobic surfaces present on the proteins interact with the hydrophobic surface presented by the arginine clusters. The masking of hydrophobic surface inhibits protein-protein aggregation. This mechanism is also responsible for the hydrotropic effect of arginine on various compounds. It is also explained why other amino acids fail to inhibit the protein aggregation.

Peptides in DNA delivery: current insights and future directions.

Peptides are emerging as attractive alternatives to cationic polymers and lipids for nonviral DNA delivery. Their remarkable properties such as efficient condensation of DNA, translocation across the cellular membrane, pH-sensitive membrane disruption, and efficient targeting of attached cargoes to the nucleus make them lucrative for researchers to explore their application in DNA delivery. In this review article, we focus on how the chemical nature, structural features and DNA complexation strategies of different peptides have been utilized for efficient DNA delivery. We also discuss their potential problems hindering in vivo application.

Differences in DNA Condensation and Release by Lysine and Arginine Homopeptides Govern Their DNA Delivery Efficiencies

Designing of nanocarriers that can efficiently deliver therapeutic DNA payload and allow its smooth intracellular release for transgene expression is still a major constraint. The optimization of DNA nanocarriers requires thorough understanding of the chemical and structural characteristics of the vector-nucleic acid complexes and its correlation with the cellular entry, intracellular state and transfection efficiency. L-lysine and L-arginine based cationic peptides alone or in conjugation with other vectors are known to be putative DNA delivery agents. Here we have used L-lysine and L-arginine homopeptides of three different lengths and probed their DNA condensation and release properties by using a multitude of biophysical techniques including fluorescence spectroscopy, gel electrophoresis and atomic force microscopy. Our results clearly showed that although both lysine and arginine based homopeptides condense DNA via electrostatic interactions, they follow different pattern of DNA condensation and release in vitro. While lysine homopeptides condense DNA to form both monomolecular and multimolecular complexes and show differential release of DNA in vitro depending on the peptide length, arginine homopeptides predominantly form multimolecular complexes and show complete DNA release for all peptide lengths. The cellular uptake of the complexes and their intracellular state (as observed through flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy) seem to be controlled by the peptide chemistry. The difference in the transfection efficiency of lysine and arginine homopeptides has been rationalized in light of these observations.

Exogenous and cell surface glycosaminoglycans alter DNA delivery efficiency of arginine and lysine homopeptides in distinctly different ways

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) expressed ubiquitously on the cell surface are known to interact with a variety of ligands to mediate different cellular processes. However, their role in the internalization of cationic gene delivery vectors such as liposomes, polymers, and peptides is still ambiguous and seems to be controlled by multiple factors. In this report, taking peptides as model systems, we show that peptide chemistry is one of the key factors that determine the dependence on cell surface glycosaminoglycans for cellular internalization and gene delivery. Arginine peptides and their complexes with plasmid DNA show efficient uptake and functional gene transfer independent of the cell surface GAGs. On the other hand, lysine peptides and complexes primarily enter through a GAG-dependent pathway. The peptide-DNA complexes also show differential interaction with soluble GAGs. In the presence of exogenous GAGs under certain conditions, arginine peptide-DNA complexes show increased transfection efficiency that is not observed with lysine. This is attributed to a change in the complex nature that ensures better protection of the compacted DNA in the case of arginine complexes, whereas the lysine complexes get destabilized under these conditions. The presence of a GAG coating also ensures better cell association of arginine complexes, resulting in increased uptake. Our results indicate that the role of both the cell surface and exogenous glycosaminoglycans in gene delivery is controlled by the nature of the peptide and its complex with DNA.

Linear short histidine and cysteine modified arginine peptides constitute a potential class of DNA delivery agents.

The success of gene therapy relies on the development of safe and efficient multifunctional carriers of nucleic acids that can overcome extra- and intracellular barriers, protect the nucleic acid and mediate its release at the desired site allowing gene expression. Peptides bear unique properties that are indispensable for any carrier, e.g., they can mediate DNA condensation, cellular targeting, membrane translocation, endosomal escape and nuclear localization. In an effort to design a multifunctional peptide, we have modified an arginine homopeptide R16 by replacement of seven arginines with histidines and addition of one cysteine at each end respectively to impart endosomal escape property while maintaining the DNA condensation and release balance. Addition of histidines imparts endosomal escape property to arginine homopeptide, but their arrangement with respect to arginines is more critical in controlling DNA condensation, release and transfection efficiency. Intriguingly, R5H7R4 peptide where charge/arginine is distributed in blocks is preferred for strong condensation while more efficient transfection is seen in the variants R9H7 and H4R9H3, which exhibit weak condensation and strong release. Addition of cysteine to each of these peptides further fine-tuned the condensation-release balance without application of any oxidative procedure unlike other similar systems reported in the literature. This resulted in a large increase in the transfection efficiency in all of the histidine modified peptides irrespective of the arginine and histidine positions. This series of multifunctional peptides shows comparable transfection efficiency to commercially available transfection reagent Lipofectamine 2000 at low charge ratios, with simple preparative procedure and exhibits much less toxicity.

Nanoparticles of cationic chimeric peptide and sodium polyacrylate exhibit striking antinociception activity at lower dose

The current study investigates the performance of polyelectrolyte complexes based nanoparticles in improving the antinociceptive activity of cationic chimeric peptide-YFa at lower dose. Size, Zeta potential and morphology of the nanoparticles were determined. Size of the nanoparticles decreases and zeta potential increases with concomitant increase in charge ratio (Z(+/-)). The nanoparticles at Z(+/-)12 are spherical with 70+/-7 nm diameter in AFM and displayed positive surface charge and similar sizes (83+/-8 nm) by Zetasizer. The nanoparticles of Z(+/-) 12 are used in this study. Cytotoxicity by MTT assay on three different mammalian cell lines (liver, neuronal and kidney) revealed lower toxicity of nanoparticles. Hematological parameters were also not affected by nanoparticles compared to normal counts of water treated control group. Nanoparticles containing 10 mg/kg YFa produced increased antinociception, approximately 36%, in tail-flick latency test in mice, whereas the neat peptide at the same concentration did not show any antinociception activity. This enhancement in activity is attributed to the nanoparticle associated protection of peptide from proteolytic degradation. In vitro peptide release study in plasma also supported the antinociception profile of nanoparticles. Thus, our results suggest of a potential nanoparticle delivery system for cationic peptide drug candidates for improving their stability and bioavailability.