Anita Woolfolk Hoy

Teacher efficacy: capturing an elusive construct

Abstract Teacher efficacy has proved to be powerfully related to many meaningful educational outcomes such as teachers’ persistence, enthusiasm, commitment and instructional behavior, as well as student outcomes such as achievement, motivation, and self-efficacy beliefs. However, persistent measurement problems have plagued those who have sought to study teacher efficacy. We review many of the major measures that have been used to capture the construct, noting problems that have arisen with each. We then propose a promising new measure of teacher efficacy along with validity and reliability data from three separate studies. Finally, new directions for research made possible by this instrument are explored.

Teacher Efficacy: Its Meaning and Measure

The theoretical and empirical underpinnings of teacher efficacy are examined to bring coherence to the construct and its measurement. First, we explore the correlates of teacher efficacy revealed using various instruments and search for patterns that suggest a better understanding of the construct. Next, we introduce a model of teacher efficacy that reconciles two competing conceptual strands found in the literature. Then we examine implications of the research on teacher efficacy for teacher preparation and suggest strategies for improving the efficacy of inservice teachers. Finally, we propose new directions for research in light of the proposed model.

Collective Teacher Efficacy: Its Meaning, Measure, and Impact on Student Achievement

This article is a theoretical and empirical analysis of the construct of collective teacher efficacy. First, a model of collective efficacy was elaborated for use in schools. Then, an operational measure of collective teacher efficacy was developed, tested, and found to have strong reliability and reasonable validity. Finally, using the instrument to examine urban elementary schools in one large midwestern district, collective teacher efficacy was positively associated with differences between schools in student-level achievement in both reading and mathematics.

Collective Efficacy Beliefs:Theoretical Developments, Empirical Evidence, and Future Directions

This analysis synthesizes existing research to discuss how teachers’ practice and student learning are affected by perceptions of collective efficacy. Social cognitive theory is employed to explain that the choices teachers make—the ways in which they exercise personal agency—are strongly influenced by collective efficacy beliefs. Although empirically related, teacher and collective efficacy perceptions are theoretically distinct constructs, each having unique effects on educational decisions and student achievement. Our purpose is to advance awareness about perceived collective efficacy and develop a conceptual model to explain the formation and influence of perceived collective efficacy in schools. We also examine the relevance of efficacy beliefs to teachers’ professional work and outline future research possibilities.

Academic Optimism of Schools: A Force for Student Achievement

Researchers have been challenged to go beyond socioeconomic status in the search for school-level characteristics that make a difference in student achievement. The purpose of the present study was to identify a new construct, academic optimism, and then use it to explain student achievement while controlling for socioeconomic status, previous achievement, and urbanicity. The study focused on a diverse sample of 96 high schools. A random sample of teachers from each school provided data on the school’s academic optimism, and student achievement scores and demographic characteristics were obtained from the state department of education. A confirmatory factor analysis and hypothesis tests were conducted simultaneously via structural equation modeling. As predicted, academic optimism made a significant contribution to student achievement after controlling for demographic variables and previous achievement. The findings support the critical nature of academic optimism.

A Case Study of an African American Teacher's Self-Efficacy, Stereotype Threat, and Persistence.

Abstract The purpose of this qualitative investigation was to understand the sources of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997) for an African American teacher in a suburban high school in the United States. As one of only three African American teachers in the school, she encountered many challenges that could have threatened her sense of efficacy and thus caused her to leave the school, yet she persevered. We attempted to identify and interpret the sources of efficacy that encouraged the teachers persistence in an unsupportive environment. In addition, we considered how the concept of stereotype threat might help us better understand the teachers situation. Findings of the case study have implications for teacher self-efficacy theory and research, as well as teacher persistence.

Creating smarter schools through collaboration

Principles of cognitive psychology are considered, not primarily as they inform classroom practice, but as they inform school organization and administrative practice in schools. Theories of knowledge as distributed, social, situated, and based on prior beliefs and knowledge are applied to organizational learning within schools. Collaborative problem solving is explored as a means that schools might employ to become smarter. The study is situated within a Midwestern high school that is striving to improve itself. This school employs collaborative strategies to learn and adapt to changed expectations and circumstances. In the school examined, this collaboration is orchestrated through the creation of discourse communities among teachers and cognitive apprenticeships among teachers and administrators.

Educational Psychology in Teacher Education

Over the years, educational psychology has been a part of teacher preparation, moving from a centerpiece in many programs, through periods when it was deemed irrelevant by some, to current concerns about its role in the reforming of teacher education and teaching. Today, psychological knowledge is used to ground reforms in teaching and schooling, particularly the call for teaching for understanding. Current standards for teacher certifications and licensure and suggestions for reform in teacher education assume that teachers will have a deep and generative understanding of learning, development, motivation, and individual differences. This article explores several themes that recur in the writing on reforms and teacher standards: the need to place learning at the center of teaching, the call for integrated studies, and the value of collaboration with the public schools. These themes have both positive and negative implications for the role of educational psychology in teacher education.Over the years, educational psychology has been a part of teacher preparation, moving from a centerpiece in many programs, through periods when it was deemed irrelevant by some, to current concerns about its role in the reforming of teacher education and teaching. Today, psychological knowledge is used to ground reforms in teaching and schooling, particularly the call for teaching for understanding. Current standards for teacher certifications and licensure and suggestions for reform in teacher education assume that teachers will have a deep and generative understanding of learning, development, motivation, and individual differences. This article explores several themes that recur in the writing on reforms and teacher standards: the need to place learning at the center of teaching, the call for integrated studies, and the value of collaboration with the public schools. These themes have both positive and negative implications for the role of educational psychology in teacher education.

Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning: The Dynamic Duo in School Performance

Publisher Summary This chapter explains self-efficacy and self-regulated learning. The chapter believes that self-efficacy plays a mediating role in learning, even in the primary classroom. Self-efficacy is distinct from other conceptions of self because it involves judgments about capabilities specific to a particular task. Self-concept is a more global construct that contains many perceptions about the self, including self-efficacy. Self-concept is developed as a result of external and internal comparisons, using other people or other aspects of the self as frames of reference. But self-efficacy focuses on ability to successfully accomplish a particular task with no need for comparisons. Self-efficacy beliefs and self-regulated learning strategies are interdependent; both require the presence of specific cognitive capacities, including the ability to set goals, self-monitor, reflect, and make judgments. Both also support personal agency or control. Examining the self-regulated learning skills of primary-aged children is essential for understanding the maintenance of self-efficacy. Both self-regulated learning and self-efficacy judgments require a similar series of cognitive and meta cognitive processes, including self-observation, self-judgment, and self-reaction. More research with children of this age group may lead to a fuller and deeper understanding of the exact nature of these beliefs to provide all children with a positive and exciting start in their quest for life-long learning.Publisher Summary This chapter explains self-efficacy and self-regulated learning. The chapter believes that self-efficacy plays a mediating role in learning, even in the primary classroom. Self-efficacy is distinct from other conceptions of self because it involves judgments about capabilities specific to a particular task. Self-concept is a more global construct that contains many perceptions about the self, including self-efficacy. Self-concept is developed as a result of external and internal comparisons, using other people or other aspects of the self as frames of reference. But self-efficacy focuses on ability to successfully accomplish a particular task with no need for comparisons. Self-efficacy beliefs and self-regulated learning strategies are interdependent; both require the presence of specific cognitive capacities, including the ability to set goals, self-monitor, reflect, and make judgments. Both also support personal agency or control. Examining the self-regulated learning skills of primary-aged children is essential for understanding the maintenance of self-efficacy. Both self-regulated learning and self-efficacy judgments require a similar series of cognitive and meta cognitive processes, including self-observation, self-judgment, and self-reaction. More research with children of this age group may lead to a fuller and deeper understanding of the exact nature of these beliefs to provide all children with a positive and exciting start in their quest for life-long learning.

Science Teaching Efficacy Beliefs

Teacher self-efficacy is considered one of the most powerful constructs in explaining both student and teacher behaviors, including the goals they set for themselves, their persistence in the face of difficulties, and the effort they invest. For over the past three decades, a number of educational studies have emerged about meaning, measurement, and correlates of this construct, as well as application in different domains like science teaching efficacy. This chapter focuses on science teaching efficacy beliefs. First, we present the historical background of self-efficacy including origins, definition, and distinctive features of self-efficacy beliefs. Next, we focus on teachers’ sense of efficacy, highlighting the conceptual framework and critical measurement issues. We then review research on science teaching efficacy by summarizing major findings. We conclude our chapter by offering recommendations for future research.