Anja du Plessis

Predicting water quality associated with land cover change in the Grootdraai Dam catchment, South Africa

The Grootdraai Dam catchment forms part of the Vaal River system, which is deemed to be the ‘workhorse’ of South Africa as it is located within the economic heart of the country. The status of water quality within the catchment is an important characteristic that needs to be investigated extensively due to its importance to the country’s future economic growth. Intricate relationships between land cover and specific water quality parameters were quantified and unique model equations were formulated to predict water quality in the region. Urban and mining developments should be re-evaluated due to the accompanied significant hydrological consequences.

Global Water Availability, Distribution and Use

Water is one of the most widely distributed substances across the world’s surface and is crucial for a variety of aspects of human health, development and well-being as well as for the functioning of natural ecosystems. It has been recognised as a fundamental human right internationally and consequently needs to be managed both effectively and efficiently to ensure that global water needs are met. The distribution of water across the globe is uneven and the availability thereof becoming an increasingly major concern. The main water use sectors, grouped in terms of agriculture, industrial (includes industrial activities, mining and energy) as well as municipal/domestic, recreational and environmental water use, have an influence on water availability through physical water abstraction as well as through water degradation. Global challenges in terms of water availability and water use are highlighted. Focus is placed on the availability, distribution and use of freshwater resources on a global scale.

Global Water Quality Challenges

Water is the cornerstone for good health and well-being of humans and ecosystems as well as in terms of socio-economic development. Water quality is becoming a global concern due to the significant role that it plays in economic and social development. Water quantity has received far more attention from investors, scientists and the public than water quality however, the quality of water is just as important for satisfying both basic human and environmental needs. Poor water quality can be linked to quantity as water that has been polluted cannot be used for agriculture, industry or domestic water usage and effectively reduces the amount of water available in a given region. The world is faced with numerous water quality concerns such as eutrophication, salinization, sedimentation, microbial pollution as well as toxic pollution problems. Poor water quality is accompanied with economic costs in the form of health-related costs, the degradation of ecosystem functions, high water treatment costs, reduced property values, as well as impacts on economic activities such as agriculture and manufacturing. Focus is placed on the types of pollution as well as the main global water contamination problems or challenges.

Virtual Learning Environments for Transformation to Sustainability: A Case Study from the “South”

An appropriate pedagogy for supporting behavioural changes required to achieve more sustainable futures should include collaborative knowledge construction, within learning spaces allowing for critical discourse and reflection integrated with real-world applications. However, it is not easy to implement a challenge based pedagogy like this in institutions where the academic system utilises individual grading and related measures of success and with academic staff reluctant to use alternative approaches and to formulate course outcomes in terms of behavioural change. This chapter maps and critically reflects on the implementation of a sustainability focussed honours (junior post graduate, 4th level) degree, in which a transformative pedagogy is used. It is a fully online degree, offered by the Department of Geography, University of South Africa (an open and distance learning institution). Difficulties associated with collaborative learning for sustainability and the facilitation of project based research within the virtual learning environment are highlighted, and how these are addressed. These reflections include consideration of the Global South context within which Unisa functions, confronting students and staff with infrastructural issues such as access to information and communication technology, but not necessarily preventing transformational learning for sustainability.

A Future Outlook: Improved Water Efficiency and Possible Strategic Actions for South Africa and the Upper Vaal WMA

Water scarcity or stress can be accompanied with social, environmental and economic implications. Water related risks have increased and have become significant in all spheres due to South Africa’s water-stressed nature. However, even though water scarcity has been the most reported risk, very few sectors or organisations have measurable water use targets and a huge variability in the nature and ambition of targets are present. This in turn indicates a lack of urgency in terms of water related targets. A clear understanding of the real potential for reducing water losses is needed before measures are adopted or implemented to avoid costly and ineffective demand management strategies. Various water efficiency measures are available and can possibly be implemented and adopted by the various sectors within the country to promote proper water conservation and water demand management practices. These water efficiency measures however need to be both cost effective and enforced by relevant departments for the country and region to ultimately benefit from implementing water conservation and water demand management measures, targets and structures. Focus is placed on improved water efficiency measures within different sectors as well as possible strategic actions which will be necessary for improved water conservation and water demand management in the country and WMA.

Conclusions and Evaluations

Water is one of the most widely distributed substances across the world’s surface and is crucial for a variety of aspects of human health, development and well-being as well as for the functioning of natural ecosystems. It has been recognised globally as a fundamental human right and needs to be managed both effectively and efficiently to ensure that human and ecological needs are met.

South Africa’s Water Availability and Use

Unhindered water use has grown globally at twice the rate of population growth in the twentieth century and has caused some regions to be no longer able to deliver reliable water services. Water scarcity within South Africa is a reality and the continued demographic pressure, rate of economic development, high rates of urbanization and pollution will put unprecedented pressure on the country’s water resources. It is estimated that the country’s total requirements for water use will double over the next 30 years. Major industrial development and urban settlement have taken place in regions where water resources are not readily available and have resulted in substantial potential impacts on the quality of water in the country which is already limited in terms of supply. South Africa is currently facing a multi-faceted water crisis. The mismatch between water supply and water demand, the theft of water resources, a deteriorating infrastructure, the loss of essential skills, a strangling educational pipeline, demand management failure, as well as deterioration in the quality of the water, are all potential threats and key concerns that could lead to the fact that the country is experiencing a water crisis. Focus is placed on both the country’s and Upper Vaal WMA water availability and in conclusion the influence of the main water use sectors on the country’s limited water supply in terms of water abstraction and water losses.

Primary Water Quality Challenges for South Africa and the Upper Vaal WMA

The quality of the water in South Africa and the Upper Vaal WMA is affected by both natural processes such as seasonal trends, the underlying geology, weather and climate, as well as by human activities. The most significant water quality issues include salinity, eutrophication, microbial pollution, sedimentation and recently added acidification as a result of the century-long legacy of unregulated gold mining and high density populations living in close daily contact with dust and sediment arising from mine tailings. The significant global water quality issues, as identified by UNEP GEMS, should also be considered as they relate directly to the present pressures on the country’s water quality. The pollution of these freshwater resources has been accompanied by a decline in water quality, bringing with it public health issues, but also a reduction in the economic value of the available water. With the continued population growth, investments will have to be made in both developed and developing countries in terms of the improvement and maintenance of water treatment and supply infrastructures, as well as of sanitation facilities. Focus is placed on the main water quality challenges within South Africa and the Upper Vaal WMA and their influence on both environmental and human health.

Challenges and Policy Recommendations

The current challenges which face the water sector of South Africa need to be kept in mind when deciding on and implementing water efficiency measures within the various sectors. The most profound challenge facing South Africa is poverty. High poverty levels is exacerbated by high level of inequality and lack of access to natural, political and financial resources and is consequently one of the root challenges facing the water sector. Different constraints also exist in the variety of sectors of South Africa which may inhibit the adoption and implementation of WC/WDM solutions and measures. The implementation of management information systems as well as the other identified constraints needs to be kept in mind and be properly addressed for WC/WDM to be effectively implemented. Focus is placed on current challenges and constraints facing the implementation of WC/WDM as well as possible policy recommendations. There are multiple opportunities for businesses in the form of investments as well as the establishment of collaborations with various stakeholders in terms of water efficiency in the country.

The Upper Vaal WMA

The Upper Vaal WMA extends over four provinces, namely Gauteng, North-West, Mpumalanga, as well as Free State province. It does not directly share any rivers with neighbouring countries. Large quantities of water are transferred into the Upper Vaal WMA from the Lesotho Highlands Project, as well as through catchment transfers to and from neighbouring WMAs. The Vaal River is considered to be the main water source for the central industrial, mining and metropolitan regions in South Africa, and also serves Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, Limpopo, North-West, as well as the Northern Cape provinces. The Upper Vaal WMA covers a relatively large area and is very important to the South African economy and for future development. The natural landscape has been transformed and manipulated physically and chemically in order to meet society’s needs. The changes of land cover and land use have consequently been accompanied by various impacts on the specific region’s hydrological responses and ultimately its water resources. The large variety of sectors have been accompanied with multiple major water-related problems which could in the near future have detrimental effects on the country’s socio-economic growth as well as the ecological health of the surrounding environment. Focus is placed on the description of the Upper Vaal WMA and its water resources.