Anja P. Jakobi

Global education policy in the making: international organisations and lifelong learning

In recent years, policy scholars have increasingly turned towards the international level as a source for national policy change. This article conceptualises this development as the emergence of a global policy field of education. The example of lifelong learning is given to illustrate this global policy process. In the first part, I introduce global public policy, focussing on the process of internationalised policy‐making and international organisations as important actors in global policy fields. In the second part, I present the case study of lifelong learning, showing its worldwide diffusion, actors, instruments and policies involved in this process. I conclude with a brief summary and an outlook for further research.

Lifelong Learning in the Bologna Process: European Developments in Higher Education.

Since 1999, European education ministers have discussed and further implemented the ‘Bologna process’, a wide‐ranging framework for the reform of higher education. Lifelong learning was added as a goal of the process in 2001. This article evaluates the extent to which the development of lifelong learning has progressed and examines whether the Bologna process has facilitated lifelong learning opportunities in a sample of countries. The evaluation of legislative instruments and policy positions of different stakeholders in Germany, France, Italy and the UK shows that countries link quite different strategies to lifelong learning in higher education. Specific national approaches exist which facilitate or restrict its development. Thus far, the impact of the Bologna process on this issue has been modest. The process has mainly had an impact on the discussion regarding lifelong learning, not necessarily whether and how such policies and programmes are implemented.

Common goods and evils? : the formation of global crime governance

INTRODUCTION 1. Global Crime Governance in World Society PART I: GOVERNANCE IN WORLD SOCIETY 2. Power, Change, and Institutions in World Society PART II: ESTABLISHING GLOBAL CRIME GOVERNANCE 3. The Historical Development of Global Anti-Crime Procedures 4. The Emergence and Diffusion of Global Anti-Crime Regulations 5. Global Activities against Money Laundering 6. Global Anti-Corruption Norms 7. Global Efforts against the Trafficking of Humans PART III: COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES ON GLOBAL CRIME GOVERNANCE 8. The Adoption of Crime Policies: Patterns and Strategies 9. Non-State Actors in Global Crime Governance CONCLUSIONS 10. Global Crime Governance: Conclusions, Implications and Outlook

Diffusion durch internationale Organisationen: Die Bildungspolitik der OECD

Der Beitrag untersucht am Beispiel der OECD, auf welche Weise internationale Organisationen Einfluss auf ihre Mitgliedsstaaten gewinnen konnen. Die OECD ist heute eine der wichtigsten bildungspolitischen Instanzen, deren Studien in nationaler Politiken twicklung vielfach beachtet werden.1 Die Organisation widmete sich zwar schon seit ihren Anfangen auch bildungspolitischen Themen, doch erst in den letzten Jahren wurde sie zu einem bedeutenden Akteur in diesem Politikfeld. In diesem Beitrag gehen wir dieser Entwicklung zu einer fuhrenden internationalen Bildungsorganisation nach und kontrastieren ihre jetzigen, vielfach wahrgenommenen Tatigkeiten mit denen der 1960er und 1970er Jahre, in denen sie in diesem Bereich weniger wirksam agierte. Unsere grundlegende These ist, dass die OECD heute wichtige Beitrage zur internationalen Bildungspolitik leisten kann, weil sie — im Gegensatz zu fruher — ein Gesamtpaket von Problemdefinition und Losungsansatz prasentiert. Dies gelingt durch die gezielte Kombination verschiedener Diffusionsinstrumente.

The Knowledge Society and Global Dynamics in Education Politics

This article explores the linkage between the idea of a knowledge society and effects of internationalisation in education policy-making. The fact that the idea of a knowledge society is widely shared is brought together with an explanation of increasing dynamics in education politics. The central argument is that the idea of a knowledge society has helped countries to increasingly perceive themselves as similar with respect to necessary educational changes. In consequence, they exchange policies which, some decades ago, would have been assumed to be bound to and determined by specific national traditions. Theoretically, the article is conceptualised in an institutionalist framework and illustrates the theoretical thoughts by the example of lifelong learning. Methods applied are content analysis, descriptive statistics and interviews.

Political Parties and the Institutionalization of Education: A Comparative Analysis of Party Manifestos

Education has been featured prominently in recent election campaigns in different countries. This article explains this observation by the idea of a world culture and the global institutionalization of education. It compares party manifestors of 25 OECD countries from 1946 onward, analyzing how education developed in election campaigns over time and across the political spectrum. The results show that education represents a very consensual issue compared with other policy fields. It also has become increasingly important in campagns over time. Also, although right- and left-wing parties still show differences in their support for education, these have become less pronounced.

Convergence in education policy? A quantitative analysis of policy change and stability in OECD countries

In this article, we quantitatively assess education policy change in OECD countries. While research has frequently underlined the importance of international exchange for national policy development, it is yet unclear whether resulting policies are converging. By distinguishing different kinds of education policy goals, we hypothesise that indicators related to macro-level goals are more likely to converge than those related to implementation. We then analyse the development of several education policies since the 1990s. We find strong convergence of some indicators and among some groups of countries, but no clear pattern emerges. Convergence is only partially influenced by the abstractness of education policy goals, and in particular the Scandinavian countries seem to pursue their own approaches in important education policy options.

Non-State Actors and the Governance of Violence and Crime

Preventing violence and crime is a core task of the state — yet, it is also one of the most difficult. Violence in societies and the activities of criminals were the main historical reasons for the establishment of the governmental monopoly of force and have been a challenge from the very beginning of statehood. Public order and security have never been self-sustaining, and their margins remain contested. Today, violence threatens the public order in many forms, ranging from civil war to transnational organized crime and terrorism. Rebel groups undermine peace agreements, criminal groups organize themselves in ways that allow them to evade effective law enforcement, and terrorists threaten the daily life of civilians in many countries.

The Internationalization of Education Policy in a Cross-National Perspective

Education policymaking is influenced by various different factors on different levels. In order to be able to draw general conclusions on the influence of international organizations (IOs) on national policymaking in the field of education we take a quantitative approach. In this chapter we will assess the impact of international and national factors on education policy change by applying different quantitative methods.

Non-State Actors and Global Crime Governance: Explaining the Variance of Public-Private Interaction

This article: Shows the variance of non-state actors in global crime governance and transnational governance in general, and shows that existent accounts fail to explain this variance. Proposes a model of how we can understand the different roles of non-state actors, distinguishing normative from rationalist reasons for non-state actor involvement. Compares different forms of current global crime governance (human trafficking, conflict diamonds, money laundering, cybercrime) to explore the validity of the model. Shows that non-state activism and public debate are usually only related to a specific type of crime, turning a ‘blind eye’ to other forms of crime and their governance. Argues that this creates problems with regard to oversight and discussion of global crime governance, exemplified with regard to intelligence surveillance via internet traffic. Global crime governance has become a major area of international activity, including a growing number of public and private regulatory efforts. Yet it is puzzling that a considerable variance exists in how state and non-state actors interact: non-state actors have been important agenda-setters in some issue areas, while they have been absent in others. Sometimes they are implementation bodies, sometimes they set regulations themselves. I argue that this variance is caused by issue characteristics: If an issue area is framed in a highly moralised way, it is likely that resulting non-governmental activity can be explained by normative convictions, and in particular advocacy occurs frequently. If an issue area is framed in a technical way, resource exchange is central, and delegation to non-state actors becomes more prominent. A comparison of human trafficking, conflict diamonds, money laundering and cybercrime shows that this relation can be found on the global and national level.