Anna-Lisa Lindén

Travel patterns and environmental effects now and in the future:: implications of differences in energy consumption among socio-economic groups

Travel patterns among different socio-economic groups in Sweden are investigated. It is shown that elderly persons, persons with low incomes and women in general do not travel extensively. Middle-aged persons, persons with high incomes and men travel much farther. Cars are the dominant transportation mode for all population groups. Aeroplanes are used mostly by high-income earners and men, while public transportation is mostly used by young people and women. Energy consumption for the different travel patterns differs substantially. Men with high incomes consume the most energy, with 94 000 MJ during one year, while elderly women consume 12 000 MJ. When compared to a calculated sustainable level of energy consumption for travel, most population groups are in excess. The level for sustainable energy consumption is calculated based on an assumed global potential for renewable energy of 360 EJ per year, divided equally among the global population. A certain share of this energy potential is supposed to be used for travelling. A scenario for 2020 is presented in which vehicle energy efficiency has increased and travel patterns have changed from what they are today. Sustainability can only be reached when both travel patterns and vehicle technology have changed radically. Differences in energy consumption for travel due to age and gender are likely to remain in the future. Scientific knowledge from the social domains seems to be important for devising efficient strategies for a sustainable society. Current focus on policy measures has been mainly on technical issues.

Voluntary agreements - a measure for energy-efficiency in industry? Lessons from a Swedish programme

Voluntary agreements represent a policy instrument for applying new knowledge, routines or technology to specified issues. The traditional role of an authority when using information, and taking economic, or administrative measures is that of an initiator and controller. Voluntary agreements, on the other hand, represent a communication process between an authority and a partner where relations of dependency and mutuality are more important in advancing the programme. This article analyses and discusses the motivational aspects of voluntary agreements, the role of the contract, advising, information, education, time planning and the importance of reporting and evaluation in energy-efficiency programmes. Besides sociological and communication theories, the discussion is based on the outcome of an evaluation of a Swedish energy-efficiency programme. Among the conclusions are that communication processes have to be planned and implemented in time sequences and steps of measures, which was partially neglected in the Swedish programme. Also, agreements between partners have to be defined in ways valid for all partners. In the Swedish programme, quantitative goals, at least measured in kWh, were impossible to achieve for some industries. On the other hand, most industries reported progress in side effects of energy efficiency as for example transportation policy for products, recirculation of waste material, lighting policy and behaviour, qualifications for ISO labelling. Information in combination with voluntary agreements can be efficient for industrial energy conservation. The education and auditing that was part of the Swedish programme were highly appreciated and added to the achievements.

Trends in food production and consumption: Swedish experiences from environmental and cultural impacts

Changes in Swedish food consumption patterns during recent decades are studied, together with some possible future changes of importance for increasing resource efficiency. The increased consumption of meat and a more global food supply have contributed negatively. An increased interface with foreign food cultures through travelling and immigration are the main causes of these consumption changes. Meat consumption may decline while the consumption of organic and convenience foods may increase in the future. Environmental and health reasons will be the main causes, together with an increased acceptance among younger people of food cultures with vegetarian ingredients. Lack of time and skills for cooking and an increased supply of convenience foods are other causes. The environmental consequences of changes in food cultures may be beneficial, but that depends partly on the locations of food industries and producers as well as on methods used in farming and the food industry.

Environmentally Friendly Disposal Behaviour and Local Support Systems: lessons from a metropolitan area.

The amount of household refuse has steadily increased in Sweden. Strategies for household waste reduction include sorting, recycling, re-use and repair. Two categories of motivational factors determine disposal behaviour, external and internal. The external factors include administrative, economic, information and physical measures. The internal factors include knowledge, values and attitudes of individuals. Environmentally friendly disposal behaviour is best achieved when both external and internal motivational factors argue for performing activities benign to the environment. The data were collected by interviewing households and stakeholders in a metropolitan area and by studying the facilities for recycling and re-use there. The results show that over 80% of the inhabitants sorted most paper and glass; they were satisfied with the facilities and considered the behaviour important for the environment. The external motivational factors for this behaviour were very strong, with numerous bins and ample information. National policy, formulated in the eco-cycle bill with specified achievement levels, local responsibilities for organising waste management, supporting citizens with physical facilities, information and moti vational arguments, seems to be a successful combination when implementing environmental policy in this sector.

Housing market segmentation in Swedish local authorities. Immigrants and Swedes; Young and old

The intention of this article is, firstly, to investigate housing market segmentation with respect to various age groups and to immigrants within Swedish local authorities. Secondly, it aims at trying to describe the differences between local authority areas with varying degrees of segmentation. It is important to differentiate between HOUSING SEGREGATION, which refers to separated dwellings between households in geographical space, and HOUSING MARKET SEGMENTATION which concerns legal and financial relationships to housing. In many cases housing segregation has decreased through the construction of housing estates where privately‐owned, co‐operative and rented flats are integrated, although the housing market segmentation has increased. A good deal of the housing market segmentation in a local authority refers to the stock of flats, the types of housing, the forms of occupancy, the categories of ownership on the housing market. Secondly the differences between local authorities often refers to the structu...

Globalisation of markets and products: a challenge for environmental policy

Production of products has increasingly been relocated to countries outside the western industrialised area. Consumption of the same products in the west has increased. Policy instruments, used with positive effects nationally, have become more or less ineffective or irrelevant. Some environmental problems related to production practices have been relocated to other countries, while the import of products involves new environmental and health impacts for consumers. In integrated product policy, including phases of design, production, distribution, consumption and waste management, the possibility of using policy instruments to address designing and producing actors are highly affected by globalisation. The globalisation of production is a challenge for environmental policy as regards defining policy instruments with international validity. Case studies, the integrated product chain for batteries, clothing and meat, are used analysing globalisation and policy instruments. The empirical materials include legislation, propositions, protocols and interviews with officials in ministries, authorities, production and distribution organisations.

Obstacles for Young Swedes to Find a Home of Their Own

During the first years of the 1980s, one could see that young people in Sweden moved from their parents’ homes to their own housing at a somewhat older age than previously (Lundberg and Modig, 1984). In this article, these circumstances form the starting‐point for a secondary analysis. The problem can be summarized in four hypotheses: (1) A change in the supply of housing can have caused difficulties for young people in finding a home of their own. (2) More youth may entail increased competition for existing dwellings. (3) Young peoples ability to pay for housing of their own may have changed. (4) A change in attitudes may have occurred towards giving more priority to stay longer in their parents’ homes. Young people of the 1980s are, without doubt, marginal persons on the housing market. They belong to a group who have gradually been deprived of their possibilities to find a home of their own. The number of small rented flats in multi‐occupancy blocks have decreased. Waiting time and queuing time for fl...