Anna Manzano

PFK-2/FBPase-2: maker and breaker of the essential biofactor fructose-2,6-bisphosphate

Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate is responsible for mediating glucagon-stimulated gluconeogenesis in the liver. This discovery has led to the realization that this compound plays a significant role in directing carbohydrate fluxes in all eukaryotes. Biophysical studies of the enzyme that both synthesizes and degrades this biofactor have yielded insight into its molecular enzymology. Moreover, the metabolic role of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate has great potential in the treatment of diabetes.

PFKFB3 gene silencing decreases glycolysis, induces cell‐cycle delay and inhibits anchorage‐independent growth in HeLa cells

The high rate of glycolysis despite the presence of oxygen in tumor cells (Warburg effect) suggests an important role for this process in cell division. The glycolytic rate is dependent on the cellular concentration of fructose 2,6‐bisphosphate (Fru‐2,6‐P2), which, in turn, is controlled by the bifunctional enzyme 6‐phosphofructo‐2‐kinase/fructose‐2,6‐bisphosphatase (PFK‐2). The ubiquitous PFK‐2 isoenzyme (uPFK‐2, alternatively named UBI2K5 or ACG) coded by the pfkfb3 gene is induced by different stimuli (serum, progesterone, insulin, hypoxia, etc.) and has the highest kinase/phosphatase activity ratio amongst all PFK‐2 isoenzymes discovered to date, which is consistent with its role as a powerful activator of glycolysis. uPFK‐2 is expressed in brain, placenta, transformed cells and proliferating cells. In the present work, we analyze the impact of small interfering RNA (siRNA)‐induced silencing of uPFK‐2 on the inhibition of cell proliferation. HeLa cells treated with uPFK‐2 siRNA showed a decrease in uPFK‐2 RNA levels measured at 24 h. uPFK‐2 protein levels were severely depleted at 48–72 h when compared with cells treated with an unrelated siRNA, correlating with decreased glycolytic activity, Fru‐2,6‐P2, lactate and ATP concentrations. These metabolic changes led to reduced viability, cell‐cycle delay and an increase in the population of apoptotic cells. Moreover, uPFK‐2 suppression inhibited anchorage‐independent growth. The results obtained highlight the importance of uPFK‐2 on the regulation of glycolysis, on cell viability and proliferation and also on anchorage‐independent growth. These data underscore the potential for uPFK‐2 as an effective tumor therapeutic target.

Molecular cloning, expression, and chromosomal localization of a ubiquitously expressed human 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/ fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase gene (PFKFB3)

We report the identification of a human 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase gene (PFKFB3) isolated from a human fetal brain cDNA library. The gene was localized to 10p15→p14 by fluorescence in situ hybridization. The entire cDNA (4,322 bp) codes for a polypeptide of 520 amino acid residues (molecular weight, 59.571 kDa). Structural analysis showed the presence of a kinase domain located at the amino terminus and a bisphosphatase domain at the carboxy terminus, characteristic of previously described 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase isozymes. In addition, a phosphorylation site for cAMP-dependent protein kinase was found at the carboxy terminus. Northern blot analysis showed the presence of a unique 4.8-kb mRNA expressed in the different tissues studied. In mammalian COS-1 cells, this cDNA drives the expression of an active isozyme. Taken together, these results identify the presence of a gene coding for a human 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase isozyme which is ubiquitously expressed.

Cooperation of Adenosine with Macrophage Toll-4 Receptor Agonists Leads to Increased Glycolytic Flux through the Enhanced Expression of PFKFB3 Gene

Macrophages activated through Toll receptor triggering increase the expression of the A2A and A2B adenosine receptors. In this study, we show that adenosine receptor activation enhances LPS-induced pfkfb3 expression, resulting in an increase of the key glycolytic allosteric regulator fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and the glycolytic flux. Using shRNA and differential expression of A2A and A2B receptors, we demonstrate that the A2A receptor mediates, in part, the induction of pfkfb3 by LPS, whereas the A2B receptor, with lower adenosine affinity, cooperates when high adenosine levels are present. pfkfb3 promoter sequence deletion analysis, site-directed mutagenesis, and inhibition by shRNAs demonstrated that HIF1α is a key transcription factor driving pfkfb3 expression following macrophage activation by LPS, whereas synergic induction of pfkfb3 expression observed with the A2 receptor agonists seems to depend on Sp1 activity. Furthermore, levels of phospho-AMP kinase also increase, arguing for increased PFKFB3 activity by phosphorylation in long term LPS-activated macrophages. Taken together, our results show that, in macrophages, endogenously generated adenosine cooperates with bacterial components to increase PFKFB3 isozyme activity, resulting in greater fructose 2,6-bisphosphate accumulation. This process enhances the glycolytic flux and favors ATP generation helping to develop and maintain the long term defensive and reparative functions of the macrophages.

TP53 induced glycolysis and apoptosis regulator (TIGAR) knockdown results in radiosensitization of glioma cells

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The TP53 induced glycolysis and apoptosis regulator (TIGAR) functions to lower fructose-2,6-bisphosphate (Fru-2,6-P(2)) levels in cells, consequently decreasing glycolysis and leading to the scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which correlate with a higher resistance to cell death. The decrease in intracellular ROS levels in response to TIGAR may also play a role in the ability of p53 to protect from the accumulation of genomic lesions. Given these good prospects of TIGAR for metabolic regulation and p53-response modulation, we analyzed the effects of TIGAR knockdown in U87MG and T98G glioblastoma-derived cell lines. METHODS/RESULTS After TIGAR-knockdown in glioblastoma cell lines, different metabolic parameters were assayed, showing an increase in Fru-2,6-P(2), lactate and ROS levels, with a concomitant decrease in reduced glutathione (GSH) levels. In addition, cell growth was inhibited without evidence of apoptotic or autophagic cell death. In contrast, a clear senescent phenotype was observed. We also found that TIGAR protein levels were increased shortly after irradiation. In addition, avoiding radiotherapy-triggered TIGAR induction by gene silencing resulted in the loss of capacity of glioblastoma cells to form colonies in culture and the delay of DNA repair mechanisms, based in γ-H2AX foci, leading cells to undergo morphological changes compatible with a senescent phenotype. Thus, the results obtained raised the possibility to consider TIGAR as a therapeutic target to increase radiotherapy effects. CONCLUSION TIGAR abrogation provides a novel adjunctive therapeutic strategy against glial tumors by increasing radiation-induced cell impairment, thus allowing the use of lower radiotherapeutic doses.

Insulin induces PFKFB3 gene expression in HT29 human colon adenocarcinoma cells.

Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate is present at high concentrations in many established lines of transformed cells. It plays a key role in the maintenance of a high glycolytic rate by coupling hormonal and growth factor signals with metabolic demand. The concentration of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate is controlled by the activity of the homodimeric bifunctional enzyme 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase (PFK-2). We report here the PFKFB-3 gene expression control by insulin in the human colon adenocarcinoma HT29 cell line. The incubation of these cells with 1 microM insulin resulted in an increase in the PFK-2 mRNA level after 6 h of treatment, this effect being blocked by actinomycin D. Furthermore, insulin induced ubiquitous PFK-2 protein levels, that were evident after a lag of 3 h and could be inhibited by incubation with cycloheximide.

Cloning, expression and chromosomal localization of a human testis 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase gene.

6-Phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase (PFK-2/FBPase-2) is a bifunctional enzyme responsible for the synthesis and breakdown of Fru-2,6-P2, a key metabolite in the regulation of glycolysis. Several genes encode distinct PFK-2/FBPase-2 isozymes that differ in their tissue distribution and enzyme regulation. In this paper, we present the isolation of a cDNA from a human testis cDNA library that encodes a PFK-2/FBPase-2 isozyme. Sequencing data show an open reading frame of 1407 nucleotides that codifies for a protein of 469 amino acids. This has a calculated molecular weight of 54kDa and 97% similarity with rat testis PFK-2/FBPase-2, with complete conservation of the amino acid residues involved in the catalytic mechanism. Fluorescence in-situ hybridization (FISH) localized testis PFK-2/FBPase-2 gene (PFKFB4) in human chromosome 3 at bands p21-p22. A Northern blot analysis of different rat tissues showed the presence of a 2.4-kb mRNA expressed specifically in testis. In mammalian COS-1 cells, the human testis cDNA drives expression of an isozyme with a molecular weight of 55kDa. This isozyme shows clear PFK-2 activity. Taken together, these results provide evidence for a new PFK-2/FBPase-2 gene coding for a human testis isozyme.

Growth hormone inhibits hepatic de novo lipogenesis in adult mice

Patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) are reported to have low growth hormone (GH) production and/or hepatic GH resistance. GH replacement can resolve the fatty liver condition in diet-induced obese rodents and in GH-deficient patients. However, it remains to be determined whether this inhibitory action of GH is due to direct regulation of hepatic lipid metabolism. Therefore, an adult-onset, hepatocyte-specific, GH receptor (GHR) knockdown (aLivGHRkd) mouse was developed to model hepatic GH resistance in humans that may occur after sexual maturation. Just 7 days after aLivGHRkd, hepatic de novo lipogenesis (DNL) was increased in male and female chow-fed mice, compared with GHR-intact littermate controls. However, hepatosteatosis developed only in male and ovariectomized female aLivGHRkd mice. The increase in DNL observed in aLivGHRkd mice was not associated with hyperactivation of the pathway by which insulin is classically considered to regulate DNL. However, glucokinase mRNA and protein levels as well as fructose-2,6-bisphosphate levels were increased in aLivGHRkd mice, suggesting that enhanced glycolysis drives DNL in the GH-resistant liver. These results demonstrate that hepatic GH actions normally serve to inhibit DNL, where loss of this inhibitory signal may explain, in part, the inappropriate increase in hepatic DNL observed in NAFLD patients.

Pfkfb3 is transcriptionally upregulated in diabetic mouse liver through proliferative signals.

The ubiquitous isoform of 6‐phosphofructo‐2‐kinase/fructose‐2,6‐bisphosphatase (uPFK‐2), a product of the Pfkfb3 gene, plays a crucial role in the control of glycolytic flux. In this study, we demonstrate that Pfkfb3 gene expression is increased in streptozotocin‐induced diabetic mouse liver. The Pfkfb3/‐3566 promoter construct linked to the luciferase reporter gene was delivered to the liver via hydrodynamic gene transfer. This promoter was upregulated in streptozotocin‐induced diabetic mouse liver compared with transfected healthy cohorts. In addition, increases were observed in Pfkfb3 mRNA and uPFK‐2 protein levels, and intrahepatic fructose‐2,6‐bisphosphate concentration. During streptozotocin‐induced diabetes, phosphorylation of both p38 mitogen‐activated protein kinase and Akt was detected, together with the overexpression of the proliferative markers cyclin D and E2F. These findings indicate that uPFK‐2 induction is coupled to enhanced hepatocyte proliferation in streptozotocin‐induced diabetic mouse liver. Expression decreased when hepatocytes were treated with either rapamycin or LY 294002. This shows that uPFK‐2 regulation is phosphoinositide 3‐kinase–Akt–mammalian target of rapamycin dependent. These results indicate that fructose‐2,6‐bisphosphate is essential to the maintenance of the glycolytic flux necessary for providing energy and biosynthetic precursors to dividing cells.

TP53-inducible Glycolysis and Apoptosis Regulator (TIGAR) Metabolically Reprograms Carcinoma and Stromal Cells in Breast Cancer.

A subgroup of breast cancers has several metabolic compartments. The mechanisms by which metabolic compartmentalization develop in tumors are poorly characterized. TP53 inducible glycolysis and apoptosis regulator (TIGAR) is a bisphosphatase that reduces glycolysis and is highly expressed in carcinoma cells in the majority of human breast cancers. Hence we set out to determine the effects of TIGAR expression on breast carcinoma and fibroblast glycolytic phenotype and tumor growth. The overexpression of this bisphosphatase in carcinoma cells induces expression of enzymes and transporters involved in the catabolism of lactate and glutamine. Carcinoma cells overexpressing TIGAR have higher oxygen consumption rates and ATP levels when exposed to glutamine, lactate, or the combination of glutamine and lactate. Coculture of TIGAR overexpressing carcinoma cells and fibroblasts compared with control cocultures induce more pronounced glycolytic differences between carcinoma and fibroblast cells. Carcinoma cells overexpressing TIGAR have reduced glucose uptake and lactate production. Conversely, fibroblasts in coculture with TIGAR overexpressing carcinoma cells induce HIF (hypoxia-inducible factor) activation with increased glucose uptake, increased 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase-3 (PFKFB3), and lactate dehydrogenase-A expression. We also studied the effect of this enzyme on tumor growth. TIGAR overexpression in carcinoma cells increases tumor growth in vivo with increased proliferation rates. However, a catalytically inactive variant of TIGAR did not induce tumor growth. Therefore, TIGAR expression in breast carcinoma cells promotes metabolic compartmentalization and tumor growth with a mitochondrial metabolic phenotype with lactate and glutamine catabolism. Targeting TIGAR warrants consideration as a potential therapy for breast cancer.