Anna Runemark

A ROLE FOR LEARNING IN POPULATION DIVERGENCE OF MATE PREFERENCES.

Learning and other forms of phenotypic plasticity have been suggested to enhance population divergence. Mate preferences can develop by learning, and species recognition might not be entirely genetic. We present data on female mate preferences of the banded demoiselle (Calopteryx splendens) that suggest a role for learning in population divergence and species recognition. Populations of this species are either allopatric or sympatric with a phenotypically similar congener (C. virgo). These two species differ mainly in the amount of wing melanization in males, and wing patches thus mediate sexual isolation. In sympatry, sexually experienced females discriminate against large melanin wing patches in heterospecific males. In contrast, in allopatric populations within the same geographic region, females show positive (“open‐ended”) preferences for such large wing patches. Virgin C. splendens females do not discriminate against heterospecific males. Moreover, physical exposure experiments of such virgin females to con‐ or hetero‐specific males significantly influences their subsequent mate preferences. Species recognition is thus not entirely genetic and it is partly influenced by interactions with mates. Learning causes pronounced population divergence in mate preferences between these weakly genetically differentiated populations, and results in a highly divergent pattern of species recognition at a small geographic scale.

Island biology and morphological divergence of the Skyros wall lizard Podarcis gaigeae : a combined role for local selection and genetic drift on color morph frequency divergence?

BackgroundPatterns of spatial variation in discrete phenotypic traits can be used to draw inferences about the adaptive significance of traits and evolutionary processes, especially when compared to patterns of neutral genetic variation. Population divergence in adaptive traits such as color morphs can be influenced by both local ecology and stochastic factors such as genetic drift or founder events. Here, we use quantitative color measurements of males and females of Skyros wall lizard, Podarcis gaigeae, to demonstrate that this species is polymorphic with respect to throat color, and the morphs form discrete phenotypic clusters with limited overlap between categories. We use divergence in throat color morph frequencies and compare that to neutral genetic variation to infer the evolutionary processes acting on islet- and mainland populations.ResultsGeographically close islet- and mainland populations of the Skyros wall lizard exhibit strong divergence in throat color morph frequencies. Population variation in throat color morph frequencies between islets was higher than that between mainland populations, and the effective population sizes on the islets were small (Ne:s < 100). Population divergence (FST) for throat color morph frequencies fell within the neutral FST-distribution estimated from microsatellite markers, and genetic drift could thus not be rejected as an explanation for the pattern. Moreover, for both comparisons among mainland-mainland population pairs and between mainland-islet population pairs, morph frequency divergence was significantly correlated with neutral divergence, further pointing to some role for genetic drift in divergence also at the phenotypic level of throat color morphs.ConclusionsGenetic drift could not be rejected as an explanation for the pattern of population divergence in morph frequencies. In spite of an expected stabilising selection, throat color frequencies diverged in the islet populations. These results suggest that there is an interaction between selection and genetic drift causing divergence even at a phenotypic level in these small, subdivided populations.

Vicariance divergence and gene flow among islet populations of an endemic lizard.

Allopatry and allopatric speciation can arise through two different mechanisms: vicariance or colonization through dispersal. Distinguishing between these different allopatric mechanisms is difficult and one of the major challenges in biogeographical research. Here, we address whether allopatric isolation in an endemic island lizard is the result of vicariance or dispersal. We estimated the amount and direction of gene flow during the divergence of isolated islet populations and subspecies of the endemic Skyros wall lizard Podarcis gaigeae, a phenotypically variable species that inhabits a major island and small islets in the Greek archipelago. We applied isolation‐with‐migration models to estimate population divergence times, population sizes and gene flow between islet–mainland population pairs. Divergence times were significantly correlated with independently estimated geological divergence times. This correlation strongly supports a vicariance scenario where islet populations have sequentially become isolated from the major island. We did not find evidence for significant gene flow within P. g. gaigeae. However, gene‐flow estimates from the islet to the mainland populations were positively affected by islet area and negatively by distance between the islet and mainland. We also found evidence for gene flow from one subspecies (P. g. weigandi) into another (P. g. gaigeae), but not in the other direction. Ongoing gene flow between the subspecies suggests that even in this geographically allopatric scenario with the sea posing a strong barrier to dispersal, divergence with some gene flow is still feasible.

Reproductive Biology of Insular Reptiles: Marine Subsidies Modulate Expression of the “Island Syndrome”

Abstract Differences in ecological conditions can result in the evolution of dramatic inter-population shifts in whole suites of traits. We studied variation in reproductive output in three lizard populations of the Skyros Wall Lizard (Podarcis gaigeae, Lacertidae) endemic to the Skyros Archipelago (Greece), which live under similar climatic conditions but differ in predation pressure and food availability. Based on the “island syndrome” hypothesis, we predicted that females from island populations would produce larger, but fewer offspring. The study populations differ conspicuously in average body size, with males from the satellite Lakonissi and Diavates islets being respectively 20% and 39% larger than males from the main Skyros Island. Lizards from these predator-free islets produced eggs of larger size than the main Skyros population; however, they also produced significantly larger clutches than the Skyros population (2.31±0.83 and 2.73±1.0 vs. 1.97±0.58 eggs). All inter-population differences in clutch size, clutch volume, and egg size were explained by corresponding differences in average body size of the dams, revealing that across all populations, reproductive effort scaled similarly with maternal body size. There was no evidence of trade-offs between egg size and clutch size as generally encountered in many reptile taxa. The occurrence of this unusual pattern of reproductive investment among islet populations of giants is probably best explained by the occurrence of two underlying drivers: first, the substantial marine subsidies by resident seabird colonies and second, the existence of intense cannibalistic behaviors in the form of attacks to the tail and severe intraspecific predation on juveniles. This suggests that subsidies-driven gigantism in island endemics may free species from such trade-offs and allow a population to maximize reproductive output in multiple, normally conflicting dimensions.

Insect monitoring with fluorescence lidar techniques: field experiments.

Results from field experiments using a fluorescence lidar system to monitor movements of insects are reported. Measurements over a river surface were made at distances between 100 and 300 m, detecting, in particular, damselflies entering the 355 nm pulsed laser beam. The lidar system recorded the depolarized elastic backscattering and two broad bands of laser-induced fluorescence, with the separation wavelength at 500 nm. Captured species, dusted with characteristic fluorescent dye powders, could be followed spatially and temporally after release. Implications for ecological research are discussed.

Population divergence in chemical signals and the potential for premating isolation between islet- and mainland populations of the Skyros wall lizard (Podarcis gaigeae).

When sexually selected traits diverge because of different local selective environments, premating isolation might arise as a correlated response. However, sexually selected traits might also diverge by stochastic forces. Here, we show that odour‐based mate preferences and scent composition have diverged between islet‐ and mainland populations of Skyros wall lizard, Podarcis gaigeae. We quantified the degree of scent‐mediated premating isolation between populations. Islet lizards preferred scent from islet lizards, whereas the mainland populations were less discriminatory. The pheromone compositions differed more between islets than between islet‐ and mainland populations and did not differ significantly between mainland populations. There was a tendency for population divergence in pheromones to be positively correlated with neutral genetic divergence. This might indicate a role for genetic drift in evolutionary change in these signals and partial decoupling between signals and preferences. Our results suggest that chemical signals and associated mate preferences can diverge through stochastic and selective forces and influence premating isolation.

Rare Events in Remote Dark-Field Spectroscopy: An Ecological Case Study of Insects

In this paper, a novel detection scheme for the monitoring of insect ecosystems is presented. Our method is based on the remote acquisition of passive sunlight scattering by two insect species. Procedures to identify rare events in remote dark-field spectroscopy are explained. We further demonstrate how to reduce the spectral representation, and how to discriminate between sexes, using a hierarchical clustering analysis. One-day cycle showing the temporal activities of the two sexes as well as data on activity patterns in relation to temperature and wind is presented. We also give a few examples of the potential use of the technique for studying interactions between sexes on a time scale of milliseconds.

Sex differences in developmental plasticity and canalization shape population divergence in mate preferences

Sexual selection of high-quality mates can conflict with species recognition if traits that govern intraspecific mate preferences also influence interspecific recognition. This conflict might be resolved by developmental plasticity and learned mate preferences, which could drive preference divergence in populations that differ in local species composition. We integrate field and laboratory experiments on two calopterygid damselfly species with population genetic data to investigate how sex differences in developmental plasticity affect population divergence in the face of gene flow. Whereas male species recognition is fixed at emergence, females instead learn to recognize heterospecifics. Females are therefore more plastic in their mate preferences than males. We suggest that this results from sex differences in the balance between sexual selection for high-quality mates and selection for species recognition. As a result of these sex differences, females develop more pronounced population divergence in their mate preferences compared with males. Local ecological community context and presence of heterospecifics in combination with sex differences in plasticity and canalization therefore shape population divergence in mate preferences. As ongoing environmental change and habitat fragmentation bring formerly allopatric species into secondary contact, developmental plasticity of mate preferences in either or both sexes might facilitate coexistence and prevent local species extinction.

Does relaxed predation drive phenotypic divergence among insular populations

The evolution of striking phenotypes on islands is a well‐known phenomenon, and there has been a long‐standing debate on the patterns of body size evolution on islands. The ecological causes driving divergence in insular populations are, however, poorly understood. Reduced predator fauna is expected to lower escape propensity, increase body size and relax selection for crypsis in small‐bodied, insular prey species. Here, we investigated whether escape behaviour, body size and dorsal coloration have diverged as predicted under predation release in spatially replicated islet and mainland populations of the lizard species Podarcis gaigeae. We show that islet lizards escape approaching observers at shorter distances and are larger than mainland lizards. Additionally, we found evidence for larger between‐population variation in body size among the islet populations than mainland populations. Moreover, islet populations are significantly more divergent in dorsal coloration and match their respective habitats poorer than mainland lizards. These results strongly suggest that predation release on islets has driven population divergence in phenotypic and behavioural traits and that selective release has affected both trait means and variances. Relaxed predation pressure is therefore likely to be one of the major ecological factors driving body size divergence on these islands.

Variation and constraints in hybrid genome formation

Hybridization is an important source of variation; it transfers adaptive genetic variation across species boundaries and generates new species. Yet, the limits to viable hybrid genome formation are poorly understood. Here we investigated to what extent hybrid genomes are free to evolve by sequencing the genomes of four island populations of the homoploid hybrid Italian sparrow Passer italiae. We report that a variety of novel and fully functional hybrid genomic combinations are likely to have arisen independently on Crete, Corsica, Sicily and Malta, with differentiation in candidate genes for beak shape and plumage colour. However, certain genomic regions are invariably inherited from the same parent species, limiting variation. These regions are over-represented on the Z chromosome and harbour candidate incompatibility loci, including DNA-repair and mitonuclear genes. These gene classes may contribute to the general reduction of introgression on sex chromosomes. This study demonstrates that hybrid genomes may vary, and identifies new candidate reproductive isolation genes.Hybridization is an important evolutionary process. Here, the authors study isolated populations of the hybrid Italian sparrow and identify several novel and fully functional hybrid genomic combinations that arose independently in different islands.