Annalisa Zacco

Review of fly ash inertisation treatments and recycling

Fly ash (FA) is a by-product of power, and incineration plants operated either on coal and biomass, or on municipal solid waste. FA can be divided into coal fly ash, obtained from power plant burning coal, flue gas desulphurisation FA, that is, the by-product generated by the air pollution control equipment in coal-fired power plants to reduce the release of SO2, biomass FA produced in the plants for thermal conversion of biomass and municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) FA, that is, the finest residue obtained from the scrubber system in a MSWI plant. Because of the large amount produced in the world, fly ash is now considered the world’s fifth largest material resource. The composition of FA is very variable, depending on its origins; then, also pollutants can be very different. In this frame, it is fundamental to exploit the chemical or physical potentials of FA constituents, thus rendering them second-life functionality. This review paper is addressed to FA typology, composition, treatment, recycling, functional reuse and metal and organic pollutants abatement. Because of the general growing of environmental awareness and increasing energy and material demand, it is expected that increasing recycling rates will reduce the pressure on demand for primary raw materials, help to reuse valuable materials which would otherwise be wasted and reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from extraction and processing.

Total reflection of x-ray fluorescence (TXRF): a mature technique for environmental chemical nanoscale metrology

Total reflection x-ray fluorescence (TXRF) is a technique well established for chemical analysis of samples deposited as a thin layer. Nowadays it is mainly employed for electronic industry quality control. Recently, very compact and economic TXRF instrumentation was proposed. Combining this with the capability to analyze liquid samples, this technique is suitable to be employed in many different applications, comprising the very critical field of environmental analysis. Comparisons with the standard atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) technique show that TXRF is a practical, accurate, and reliable technique. Indeed, round-robin activities have already been started. Despite the efficiency and economy of the developed portable TXRF instrumentation, this is not widely employed for chemical laboratory analysis probably because TXRF is not an officially recognized technique, i.e. it is not yet normative-subjected. This fact could also be due to the long background of analytical applications developed for AAS, ICPS or inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) up to now. In this paper, we present a work of environmental monitoring of an industrial site, performed by means of bioindicators (lichens). The analysis of trace elements concentration in lichen was usually conducted with spectrophotometric techniques, such as AAS and ICP-MS, which were accepted by common regulations and normative-subjected. In this study, we accomplished a comparative lichen analysis by AAS and TXRF. The reproducibility of the obtained results showed the high correspondence between the two techniques. This comparison highlighted the versatility of the TXRF apparatus that allowed more rapid and simultaneous element detection. The obtained results suggested that this portable TXRF system could be suitable for regulation to produce certificated analysis upto ppb concentrations for some elements.

A new non-destructive method for chemical analysis of particulate matter filters: the case of manganese air pollution in Vallecamonica (Italy).

Total Reflection X-ray Fluorescence (TXRF) is a well-established technique for chemical analysis, but it is mainly employed for quality control in the electronics semiconductor industry. The capability to analyze liquid and uniformly thin solid samples makes this technique suitable for other applications, and especially in the very critical field of environmental analysis. Comparison with standard methods like inductively coupled plasma (ICP) and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) shows that TXRF is a practical, accurate, and reliable technique in occupational settings. Due to the greater sensitivity necessary in trace heavy metal detection, TXRF is also suitable for environmental chemical analysis. In this paper we show that based on appropriate standards, TXRF can be considered for non-destructive routine quantitative analysis of environmental matrices such as air filters. This work has been developed in the frame of the EU-FP6 PHIME (Public Health Impact of long-term, low-level Mixed element Exposure in susceptible population strata) Integrated Project (www.phime.org). The aim of this work was to investigate Mn air pollution in the area of Vallecamonica (Italy).

Metal fractionation in soils and assessment of environmental contamination in Vallecamonica, Italy

Metal contamination was investigated in soils of the Vallecamonica, an area in the northern part of the Brescia province (Italy), where ferroalloy industries were active for a century until 2001. The extent in which emissions from ferroalloy plants affected metal concentration in soils is not known in this area. In this study, the geogenic and/or anthropogenic origin of metals in soils were estimated. A modified Community Bureau of Reference sequential chemical extraction method followed by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) analyses were employed to evaluate the potential bioavailability of Al, Cd, Mn, Fe, Cr, Zn, and Pb in soils. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to assess the relationships among metal sources in soil samples from different locations. This approach allowed distinguishing of different loadings and mobility of metals in soils collected in different areas. Results showed high concentrations and readily extractability of Mn in the Vallecamonica soils, which may suggest potential bioavailability for organisms and may create an environmental risk and potential health risk of human exposure.

Airborne particulate matter (PM) filter analysis and modeling by total reflection X-ray fluorescence (TXRF) and X-ray standing wave (XSW)

This work is presented as an improvement of a recently introduced method for airborne particulate matter (PM) filter analysis [1]. X-ray standing wave (XSW) and total reflection X-ray fluorescence (TXRF) were performed with a new dedicated laboratory instrumentation. The main advantage of performing both XSW and TXRF, is the possibility to distinguish the nature of the sample: if it is a small droplet dry residue, a thin film like or a bulk sample. Another advantage is related to the possibility to select the angle of total reflection to make TXRF measurements. Finally, the possibility to switch the X-ray source allows to measure with more accuracy lighter and heavier elements (with a change in X-ray anode, for example from Mo to Cu). The aim of the present study is to lay the theoretical foundation of the new proposed method for airborne PM filters quantitative analysis improving the accuracy and efficiency of quantification by means of an external standard. The theoretical model presented and discussed demonstrated that airborne PM filters can be considered as thin layers. A set of reference samples is prepared in laboratory and used to obtain a calibration curve. Our results demonstrate that the proposed method for quantitative analysis of air PM filters is affordable and reliable without the necessity to digest filters to obtain quantitative chemical analysis, and that the use of XSW improve the accuracy of TXRF analysis.

A New Powder Filler, Obtained by Applying a New Technology for Fly Ash Inertisation Procedure

In the last years several projects have been developed for treatment of fly ash with the aim of their reuse. A final target of these researches is to evaluate the real performance of the new materials obtained by the treatment and the actual and, if the case, potential markets for the foreseen products. Indeed, the use of a recycled inert would reduce the consumption of natural resources and this is one of the main environmental EU target. Examples are clinkering, road asphaltation and some construction work where specific performances are requested. Moreover, the reuse of inerted fly ash will obtain a reduction of carbon dioxide produced by the necessary treatments of primary materials, as limestone in concrete production. At the University of Brescia (Italy) a new process, based on colloidal silica medium, has been developed to inertise fly ashes, containing heavy metals. This approach appears to be quite promising for industrial application in view of the easiness that can be foreseen in applying it to existing plants treating industrial fly ash. The obtained inert product is a powder, that can be employed as a filler in several application. In this work we present first results about characterization of this new powder material, that can be applied as a filler.

Total reflection X‐ray fluorescence (TXRF) for direct analysis of aerosol particle samples

Atmospheric aerosol particles have a great impact on the environment and on human health. Routine analysis of the particles usually involves only the mass determination. However, chemical composition and phases provide fundamental information about the particles’ origins and can help to prevent health risks. For example, these particles may contain heavy metals such as Pb, Ni and Cd, which can adversely affect human health. In this work, filter samples were collected in Brescia, an industrial town located in Northern Italy. In order to identify the chemical composition and the phases of the atmospheric aerosols, the samples were analysed by means of total reflection X‐ray fluorescence (TXRF) spectrometry with a laboratory instrument and X‐ray microdiffraction at Synchrotron Daresbury Laboratories, Warrington (Cheshire, UK). The results are discussed and correlated to identify possible pollution sources. The novelty of this analytical approach is that filter samples for TXRF were analysed directly and did not require chemical pretreatment to leach elements from the aerosol particulates. The results of this study clearly show that TXRF is a powerful technique for the analysis of atmospheric aerosols on ‘as‐received’ filters, thereby leaving samples intact and unaltered for possible subsequent analyses by other methods. In addition, the low detection limits for many elements (low ng/cm2) indicate that this method may hold promise in various application fields, such as nanotechnology.

Determination of trace elements in Italian wines by means of total reflection X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy

This work was performed to highlight the advantages of total reflection X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (TXRF) for multi-elemental qualitative and quantitative analysis of wine. Indeed the International Organization of Vine and Wine (OIV) selected some potentially toxic elements and proposed limit values for their concentration in wines. Direct TXRF analysis of nine wine samples from Emilia Romagna region of Italy was performed in two different laboratories: Italy and Japan. Wine dehydration was also evaluated as sample conservation mean. Traces of Fe, Cu, Zn and Pb are present in all the analysed samples, with concentrations lower than the limits established by the OIV. The target hazard quotients (THQs) were also calculated for seven elements (Cl, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn and Sr) to determine their potential detrimental effects. The results show that TXRF is a fast, simple and accurate analytical technique for trace element analysis of wine. Moreover, dehydration is an effective way to store wine samples for further elemental analysis.

TXRF analysis of soils and sediments to assess environmental contamination

Total reflection x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (TXRF) is proposed for the elemental chemical analysis of crustal environmental samples, such as sediments and soils. A comparative study of TXRF with respect to flame atomic absorption spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy was performed. Microwave acid digestion and suspension preparation methods are evaluated. A good agreement was found among the results obtained with different spectroscopic techniques and sample preparation methods for Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, and Zn. We demonstrated that TXRF is suitable for the assessment of environmental contamination phenomena, even if the errors for Pb, As, V, and Ba are ingent.

Elemental analysis of tree leaves by total reflection X-ray fluorescence: New approaches for air quality monitoring

This work shows that total reflection X-ray fluorescence (TXRF) is a fast, easy and successful tool to determine the presence of potentially toxic elements in atmospheric aerosols precipitations on tree leaves. Leaves are collected in eleven parks of different geographical areas of the Brescia city, Northern Italy, for environmental monitoring purposes. Two sample preparation procedures are considered: microwave acid digestion and the novel SMART STORE method for direct analysis. The latter consists in sandwiching a portion of the leaf between two organic foils, metals free, to save it from contamination and material loss. Mass composition of macro, micro and trace elements is calculated for digested samples, while relative elemental amount are obtained from direct analysis. Washed and unwashed leaves have a different composition in terms of trace elements. Differentiation occurs according to Fe, Pb and Cu contributions, considered as most representative of air depositions, and probably related to anthropogenic sources. Direct analysis is more representative of the composition of air precipitations. Advantages and drawbacks of the presented methods of sample preparation and TXRF analysis are discussed. Results demonstrate that TXRF allows to perform accurate and precise quantitative analysis of digested samples. In addition, direct analysis of leaves may be used as a fast and simple method for screening in the nanograms range.