Annamaria Perrotta

The Neapolitan Yellow Tuff — A large volume multiphase eruption from Campi Flegrei, Southern Italy

Abstractthe Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (NYT) (12 ka BP) is considered to be the product of a single eruption. Two different members (A and B) have been identified and can be correlated around the whole of Campi Flegrei. Member A is made up of at least 6 fall units including both ash and lapilli horizons. The basal stratified ash unit (A1) is interpreted to be a phreatoplinian fall deposit, since it shows a widespread dispersal (>1000 km2) and a constant thickness over considerable topography. The absence of many lapilli fall units in proximal and medial areas testifies to the erosive power of the intervening pyroclastic surges. The overlying member B was formed by many pyroclastic flows, radially distributed around Campi Flegrei, that varied widely in their eruptive and emplacement mechanisms. In some of the most proximal exposures coarse scoria and lithic-rich deposits, sometimes welded, have been identified at the base of member B. Isopach and isopleth maps of fall-units, combined with the distribution of the coarse proximal facies, indicate that the eruptive vent was located in the NE area of Campi Flegrei. It is considered that the NYT eruption produced collapse of a caldera approximately 10 km diameter within Campi Flegrei. The caldera rim, located by geological and borehole evidence, is now largely buried by the products of more recent eruptions. Initiation of caldera collapse may have been contemporaneous with the start of the second phase (member B). It is suggested that there was a single vent throughout the eruption rather than the development of multiple or ring vents. Chemical data indicate that different levels of a zoned trachyte-phonolite magma chamber were tapped during the eruption. The minimum volume of the NYT is calculated to be about 50 km3 (DRE), of which 35 km3 (∼70%) occurs within the caldera.

The eruption of The Breccia Museo (Campi Flegrei, Italy): Fractional crystallization processes in a shallow, zoned magma chamber and implications for the eruptive dynamics

Abstract The Breccia Museo Member (BMM) was formed by an explosive eruption that occurred in the SW sector of Campi Flegrei about 20 ka ago. The eruptive sequence consists of the Lower Pumice Flow Unit and the overlying Upper Pumice Flow Unit with its associated lithic Breccia Unit. Interlayered with the Breccia Unit is a welded deposit that mainly consists of spatter clasts (Spatter Unit). The products of this eruption range in composition from trachytic to trachyphonolitic with K 2 O decreasing from 9.5 to 7 wt.%; Na 2 O correspondingly increases from 2.6 to 7.2 wt.% with increasing differentiation (Nb from 23 to 122 ppm). The phenocrysts are mostly sanidine (Or 88-63 ) with subordinate plagioclase (An 33-27 ), clinopyroxene (Ca 47 Mg 44 Fe 9 to Ca 46 Mg 35 Fe 19 ), biotite, titanomagnetite, and apatite. The observed major- and trace-element variations are fully consistent with about 80% fractional crystallization of a sanidine-dominated assemblage starting from the least differentiated trachytes. The compositions of the erupted products are compatible with the progressive tapping of a shallow magma chamber that was thermally and chemically zoned. The incompatible trace elements indicate a slightly different magma composition with respect to trachytes of the Campi Flegrei mainland. The geochemical stratigraphy suggests that after an early eruptive phase during which the upper, most differentiated level of the magma chamber was tapped, the sudden collapse of the roof of the reservoir triggered drainage of the remaining magma, which ranged in composition from trachyte to trachyphonolite, and formed the Breccia Unit and the Upper Pumice Flow Unit. The strongly differentiated trachyphonolite composition of the spatter clasts also suggests that they likely originated from the uppermost part of the reservoir soon after the eruption of Lower Pumice Flow Unit and the collapse of the chamber roof. This is in agreement with the eruptive model proposed by Perrotta and Scarpati (1994).

The dynamics of the Breccia Museo eruption (Campi Flegrei, Italy) and the significance of spatter clasts associated with lithic breccias

Abstract The Breccia Museo Member is a pyroclastic deposit produced during an eruptive event that occurred in the southwestern sector of Campi Flegrei about 20,000 years ago. Two depositional units divided by a co-ignimbrite ash-fall deposit have been recognized. Facies variations in the deposits resulted from the interaction between the flow and paleomorphology, from the relative abundance of the lithic and juvenile components supplied by the source, and from the variations of the flow regime. The Lower Depositional Unit is a pyroclastic flow deposit characterized by a thick, coarse valley facies laterally grading into a thin, layered and fine-grained overbank facies. These different facies are due to the interaction between a density-stratified flow and topography. The more basal, high-concentration part of the flow was deposited along the axis of the paleovalleys (valley facies), whereas the upper, low-concentration part was deposited on the slopes (overbank facies). Vertical variations of the structures observed in the deposits of the Lower Depositional Unit resulted from flow unsteadiness during emplacement and, hence, on the variations of the suspended load fallout from the low-concentration upper part of the flow to the high-concentration boundary layer. The Upper Depositional Unit, made up of the Breccia, Spatter and Upper Pumice Flow Units, consists of horizons of lithic breccias and coarse welded spatter which thicken into the valleys. They are closely related to a gas-pipe-rich ash and pumice flow deposit. The strongly fines-poor character of the breccias and spatter beds is due to a very rapid segregation of the dense and coarse clasts and to the high rates of gas ascent through the hindered-settling zone in the basal part of the flow. After deposition of the majority of the dense and coarse material, the subsequent high-density depositional system came to rest immediately, thus yielding a pyroclastic flow deposit that is closely associated with the breccia. The presence of lithic breccia and spatter beds within the stratigraphic sequence is interpreted to reflect changes in the magma chamber structure during the eruption. Due to the drainage of part of the magma during the first phase of the eruption, the roof of the magma chamber collapsed and the lithostatic pressure fell below the magmatic pressure. We suggest that this new magmatic overpressure, not related to the expansion of the gas, generated fragmentation of poorly vesiculated magma inside the magma chamber. This triggered a new eruptive phase during which a mixture of spatter, pumice and collapse-produced lithic debris were erupted.

Impact of the ad 79 explosive eruption on pompeii, ii. causes of death of the inhabitants inferred by stratigraphic analysis and areal distribution of the human casualties

Detailed descriptions of the effects of explosive eruptions on urban settlements available to volcanologists are relatively rare. Apart from disease and starvation, the largest number of human deaths caused by explosive eruptions in the twentieth century are due to pyroclastic flows. The relationship between the number of victims related to a specific hazard and the presence of urban settlements in the area covered by the eruption has been shown. However, pyroclastic falls are also extremely dangerous under certain conditions. These conclusions are based on archaeological and volcanological studies carried out on the victims of the well-known AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius that destroyed and buried the Roman city of Pompeii. The stratigraphic level in the pyroclastic deposit and the location of all the casualties found are described and discussed. The total number of victims recovered during the archaeological excavations amounts to 1150. Of these, 1044 well recognisable bodies plus an additional group of 100 individuals were identified based on the analysis of several groups of scattered bones. Of the former, 394 were found in the lower pumice lapilli fall deposit and 650 in the upper stratified ash and pumice lapilli pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) deposits. In addition, a tentative evaluation suggests that 464 corpses may still be buried in the unexcavated part of the city. According to the reconstruction presented in this paper, during the first phase of the eruption (August 24, AD 79) a huge quantity of pumice lapilli fell on Pompeii burying the city under 3 m of pyroclastic material. During this eruptive phase, most of the inhabitants managed to leave the city. However, 38% of the known victims were killed during this phase mainly as a consequence of roofs and walls collapsing under the increasing weight of the pumice lapilli deposit. During the second phase of the eruption (August 25, AD 79) 49% of the total victims were on the roadways and 51% inside buildings. All of these inhabitants, regardless of their location, were killed by the unanticipated PDCs overrunning the city. New data concerning the stratigraphic level of the victims in the pyroclastic succession allow us to discriminate between the sequential events responsible for their deaths. In fact, casts of some recently excavated corpses lay well above the lower PDCs deposit, testifying that some of the inhabitants survived the first pyroclastic current. Finally, during the PDCs phase the victims died quite rapidly by ash asphyxiation. From the attitude of some casts, it seems that some people survived the initial impact of the second pyroclastic current and tried to support head and bust during the progressive aggradation of the deposit at the base of the current.

Impact of the AD 79 explosive eruption on Pompeii, I. Relations amongst the depositional mechanisms of the pyroclastic products, the framework of the buildings and the associated destructive events

Abstract A quantitative and qualitative evaluation of the damage caused by the products of explosive eruptions to buildings provides an excellent contribution to the understanding of the various eruptive processes during such dramatic events. To this end, the impact of the products of the two main phases (pumice fallout and pyroclastic density currents) of the Vesuvius AD 79 explosive eruption onto the Pompeii buildings has been evaluated. Based on different sources of data, such as photographs and documents referring to the archaeological excavations of Pompeii, the stratigraphy of the pyroclastic deposits, and in situ inspection of the damage suffered by the buildings, the present study has enabled the reconstruction of the events that occurred inside the city when the eruption was in progress. In particular, we present new data related to the C.J. Polibius’ house, a large building located inside Pompeii. From a comparison of all of the above data sets, it has been possible to reconstruct, in considerable detail, the stratigraphy of the pyroclastic deposits accumulated in the city, to understand the direction of collapse of the destroyed walls, and to evaluate the stratigraphic level at which the walls collapsed. Finally, the distribution and style of the damage allow us to discuss how the emplacement mechanisms of the pyroclastic currents are influenced by their interaction with the urban centre. All the data suggest that both structure and shape of the town buildings affected the transport and deposition of the erupted products. For instance, sloping roofs ‘drained’ a huge amount of fall pumice into the ‘impluvia’ (a rectangular basin in the centre of the hall with the function to collect the rain water coming from a hole in the centre of the roof), thus producing anomalous deposit thicknesses. On the other hand, flat and low-sloping roofs collapsed under the weight of the pyroclastic material produced during the first phase of the eruption (pumice fall). In addition, it is evident that the walls that happened to be parallel to the direction of the pyroclastic density currents produced during the second eruptive phase were minimally damaged in comparison to those walls oriented perpendicular to the flow direction. We suggest that the lower depositional parts of the pyroclastic currents were partially blocked (locally reflected) and slowed down because of recurring encounters with the closely spaced walls within buildings. Locally, the percentage of demolished walls decreases down-current, which has been interpreted as a loss in kinetic energy within the depositional system of the flow. However, it seems that the upper transport system by-passed these obstacles, then supplied new pyroclasts to the depositional system that restored its physical characteristics and restored enough kinetic energy to demolish the next walls and buildings further along its path.

Eruptive history of Neapolitan volcanoes: constraints from 40Ar–39Ar dating

The city of Naples can be considered part of the Campi Flegrei volcanic field, and deposits within the urban area record many autochthonous pre- to post-caldera eruptions. Age measurements were carried out using 40 Ar– 39 Ar dating techniques on samples from small monogenetic vents and more widely distributed tephra layers. The 40 Ar– 39 Ar ages on feldspar phenocrysts yielded ages of c . 16 ka and 22 ka for events older than the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff caldera-forming eruption (15 ka), and ages of c . 40 ka, 53 ka and 78 ka for events older than the Campanian Ignimbrite caldera-forming eruption (39 ka). The oldest age obtained is 18 ka older than previous dates for pyroclastic deposits cropping out along the northern rim of Campi Flegrei. The results of this study allow us to divide the Campi Flegrei volcanic history into four main, geochronologically distinct eruptive cycles. A new period, the Paleoflegrei, occurred before 74–78 ka and has been proposed to better discriminate the ancient volcanism in the volcanic field. The eruptive history of Campi Flegrei extends possibly further back than this, but the products of previous eruptions are difficult to date owing to the lack of fresh juvenile clasts. These new geochronological data, together with recently published ages related to young volcanic edifices located in the city of Naples (Nisida volcano, 3.9 ka) testify to persistent activity over a period of at least 80 ka, with an average eruption recurrence interval of ~555 years within and adjacent to this densely populated city.

Erosional characteristics and behavior of large pyroclastic density currents

Factors influencing the erosive behavior of large pyroclastic density currents (PDCs), both mainly massive and thinly stratified, are not well understood. To investigate the parameters influencing the erosive behavior of PDCs produced during the flowing phase of large, caldera-forming Plinian (Campanian Ignimbrite) and phreatoplinian (Neapolitan Yellow Tuff) eruptions, we use scoured fall deposits at the base of, or interstratified with, PDC deposits from the Campanian region of Italy. At several localities, we calculated the depth of PDC erosion by comparing the measured thickness of eroded remnants to reconstructed thickness at each site (estimated by isopach mapping), and recorded the (1) distance from vent, (2) elevation of the locality, and (3) paleoslopes. Furthermore, we have considered how these factors can be influenced by outcrop exposure. Depth of erosion correlates with distance from the vent in low-relief landscape, while across very rugged topography the only related parameter is elevation. The different erosive patterns appear to show how pyroclastic currents interact with the topography in the surrounding terrain. When a PDC crosses relatively flat surfaces, it decelerates away from the vent, decreasing its erosive capacity; but when moving through steep terrain, a PDC accelerates down the valley, increasing its erosive capacity.

Chapter 5 The Campi Flegrei caldera boundary in the city of Naples

Abstract The Campanian Ignimbrite caldera occupies the Campi Flegrei region and part of the city of Naples. The previous caldera boundary throughout the northern periphery of Naples was merely inferred due to the lack of outcrops of proximal deposits associated with the Campanian Ignimbrite. The exact location of this important structural feature within the city of Naples is fundamental for the reconstruction of the volcanic evolution and hazard implications. New exposures and subsurface constraints reveal thick welded and lithic-rich successions overlying several monogenetic volcanoes. These proximal deposits are associated with the Campanian Ignimbrite and allow a better localization of the caldera boundary well inside the city of Naples, 2km south from the previous limit. The caldera rim in this sector partially coincides with a vent alignment that represents a structurally weak zone through which the caldera collapse occurred. The minor displacement (few tens of metres) of the top of the sedimentary succession, beneath the volcanic sequence near the caldera rim compared with 3km displacement of the top of the sedimentary succession in the central part of the caldera suggests the presence of a complex geometry of the caldera floor, which shows a piecemeal-like structure characterized by deeper blocks at the centre and shallower blocks to the sides.

Chapter 6 The Late-Holocene evolution of the Miseno area (south-western Campi Flegrei) as inferred by stratigraphy, petrochemistry and 40Ar/39Ar geochronology

Abstract This study on terrestrial and marine successions increases the understanding of the Late-Holocene volcanological and stratigraphical evolution of the south-western part of Campi Flegrei caldera. Stratigraphic data derived from field studies of two major tuff vents located along the coastal zone, namely Porto Miseno and Capo Miseno, clearly indicate that the Porto Miseno tuff ring slightly predates the Capo Miseno tuff cone. 40Ar/39Ar step-heating experiments, carried out on fresh sanidine separates from pumice samples, yielded a plateau age of 5090±140 yr BP for Capo Miseno and 6490±510 yr BP for Porto Miseno vent, thus confirming field observations. The volcanoclastic input derived from this recent and intense eruptive activity played a major role in the inner-shelf stratigraphic evolution of the Porto Miseno Bay deposits that have been drilled up to 40 m depth off the crater rim. The cored succession is characterised by transgressive marine deposits (mostly volcanic sand) with two intercalated peat layers (t1 and t2), dated at 3560±40 yr BP and 7815±55 yr BP (14C), respectively, interbedded with a 1–5 m thick pumice layer (tephra C). Peat layers have been chronostratigraphically correlated with two widespread paleosols onland while petrochemical analyses allowed us to correlate tephra C with the Capo Miseno tuff cone deposits. The results presented in this study imply a Late-Holocene volcanic activity that is also well preserved in the marine record in this sector of the caldera where a new chronostratigraphic reconstruction of the eruptive events is required in order to better evaluate the hazard assessment of the area.

Proximal depositional facies from a caldera-forming eruption: the Parata Grande Tuff at Ventotene Island (Italy)

Abstract Ventotene and S. Stefano islands form part of the southeastern flank of a Pleistocene stratovolcano. The products of 27 eruptions, the majority of which have never been previously identified, comprise the two islands. These products consist chiefly of pyroclastic deposits with only three effusive episodes represented. The youngest and most prominent deposit, hereafter called Parata Grande Tuff, was produced by an eruption that represents the culmination of more than 0.5 Ma of volcanic evolution and that formed a 3-km-wide summit caldera. The Parata Grande Tuff is the focus of this study and consists mostly of pyroclastic flow deposits overlying basal pumice and ash fall beds. The studied sections crop out as far as 2 km from the caldera rim. The flow deposits sequence can be represented by four different lithofacies: (1) massive facies, originated by rapid sedimentation of grains through a boundary layer; (2) coarse-tail graded facies, formed with a relatively lower fallout rate of particles from the suspension toward the boundary layer; (3) inverse-graded facies, considered to have formed by gradual deposition from the base to the top of a traction carpet, when the shear stress dropped below the threshold value to support the weight of the clasts; and (4) sand-wave facies, the product of deposition from an unsteady low-concentration flow. The base of the pyroclastic flow succession is welded and thickens in topographic depressions. The welding of deposits with traction structures and undeformed coarse pumice clasts probably occurred during the final stages of deposition of a formerly paniculate pyroclastic flow. The flow deposits that overlie the welded succession show a drastic increase and change of lithic types that are interpreted to reflect the collapse of the roof of the reservoir triggering magma/water interaction. The uppermost part of the sequence is a succession of layers with dunes and cross stratification alternating with massive beds. The stratified and heterogeneous succession of flow deposits could be due to the unsteady nature of the flow during the final phase of the eruption. A vertical trend of sedimentary facies from massive, to coarse-tail-graded into sand-wave lithofacies is dominant in the PGT sequence and is interpreted as a depositional cycle. Each cycle is suggestive of deposition from a flow that was progressively diluted with time.